Evaluation of probiotic strains for development of fermented Alisma canaliculatum and their effects on broiler chickens.

The present study was conducted to select appropriate microbial strains for the development of fermented Alisma canaliculatum A. Br. et Bouche (FAC) feed additive and to examine their effects on broilers. In experiment 1, 16 strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus coagulans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae from the Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC) were evaluated. The strains were tested for their acid, bile, and heat tolerance levels. Among them, L. acidophilus KCTC 3111, E. faecium KCTC 2022, B. subtilis KCTC 3239, and S. cerevisiae KCTC 7928 were selected to produce FAC. For experiment 2, 140 Ross broiler chicks were allocated to four 5-wk-long dietary groups: NC (basal diet), PC (basal diet with 0.005% oxytetracycline), AC (basal diet with 0.5% A. canaliculatum rhizome powder), and FAC (basal diet with 0.5% FAC). Final BW and total BW gain were increased (P < 0.05) upon the addition of FAC, whereas feed conversion ratio improved (P < 0.05) in the supplemented groups compared with the NC group. Crude protein content increased and crude fat decreased (P < 0.05) in the breast meat of the FAC group compared with the AC and PC groups, respectively. Proventriculus and kidney relative weights of the FAC group differed (P < 0.05) from the AC group but not from the PC group. Lower (P < 0.05) thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value of thigh meat was observed in the FAC group compared with the other groups. The FAC diet increased (P < 0.05) α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in meat. Alteration of these fatty acids led to increased levels of polyunsaturated fatty acid, polyunsaturated fatty acid /saturated fatty acid, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids, and decreased n-6/n-3 ratio in breast or thigh meat (P < 0.05). It is concluded that FAC confers high tolerance to acid, bile and heat; and beneficially affects growth, meat composition, oxidative stability, and fatty acid composition. The FAC may be a functional feed additive in broilers.

The effect of enzyme treatment of soybean meal on oligosaccharide disappearance and chick growth performance.

Research was conducted to determine the effects of enzymatically hydrolyzing raffinose and stachyose from soybean meal (SBM) on fecal oligosaccharide concentration and growth performance of chicks fed a corn-SBM diet. The alpha-galactosidase treatment was optimized for oligosaccharide degradation. Enzyme treatment degraded raffinose and stachyose in SBM by 69 and 54%, respectively, compared to untreated soybean meal (USBM). Diets containing enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESBM) resulted in excreta raffinose and stachyose concentrations reduced to below measurable levels (<0.1 mg/ g feces). Enzyme treatment increased (P < 0.05) TME from 2,974 to 3,328 kcal/kg. Three chick growth studies were conducted to determine the effect of feeding ESBM on growth performance. There were no statistical differences (P > 0.05) in growth performance among treatments. Chicks fed the ESBM diet had an increased (P < 0.05) fecal neutral detergent fiber (NDF) content in one of two studies. A fourth experiment was conducted to determine if heating, used to enhance enzyme treatment, would decrease lysine availability. Heating significantly (P < 0.05) reduced lysine availability compared to USBM. These experiments demonstrated that feces could be made void of raffinose and stachyose, but chick growth performance was not significantly (P > 0.05) improved by enzyme treatment.

A comparison of quadratic versus segmented regression procedures for estimating nutrient requirements.

Continued improvements in dietary formulation will require increasingly detailed knowledge of nutrient requirements. The objective of this study was to evaluate bias and precision of estimates of nutrient requirements from quadratic versus segmented regression. One hundred 0-to-3-wk turkey growth experiments were simulated to provide data with known nutrient requirements. Nine diets contained levels of an arbitrary nutrient ranging from 80 to 120% of recommended. The true nutrient requirement was uniformly randomly distributed between 90 and 110% of recommended. The requirements were estimated as the intersection of the segmented regression lines from a two-slope model, and 0.90 and 0.95 of the maximum gain predicted from quadratic regression coefficients. The mean true requirement was 99.42%, and predictions were 102.14+/-0.61, 107.81+/-0.61, and 99.59+/-0.61% for 0.90 of quadratic maximum, 0.95 of quadratic maximum and segmented regression, respectively. The segmented regression resulted in the closest prediction to the true nutrient requirement in 73 of 100 replicates. The average squared deviation of the requirement from their estimates were 15.18 for 0.90 of quadratic maximum, 78.72 for 0.95 of quadratic maximum, and 2.41 for segmented regression. The quadratic regressions yielded overestimates, particularly when the experimental diets were not centered on the requirement, suggesting that a bias can be introduced by experimental design. Segmented regression procedures resulted in more precise estimates of nutrient requirements, were less likely to suffer from bias, and required less a priori knowledge of the true requirement than did quadratic regression procedures.

Blood plasma chemistries from wild mourning doves held in captivity.

Despite the extensive amount of research conducted on mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), no biochemical reference values exist for this species. Our objective, therefore, was to establish base line clinical chemistry reference values for mourning doves to assist with establishing clinical diagnoses. Wild mourning doves were captured 19 March 1996 to 8 August 1996, and 6 February 1998 to 12 May 1998; blood samples were collected from 382 mourning doves. Plasma biochemical values were established for glucose, sodium, potassium, chloride, enzymatic CO2, albumin, total protein, globulin, calcium, phosphorus, cholesterol, magnesium, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and uric acid. These reference values are invaluable for determining diagnosis of diseases of the gastrointestinal, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and endocrine systems.

Digestible lysine requirement of female turkeys during the starter period.

Three experiments were conducted to determine the digestible lysine requirement of female turkey poults during the starter period. Birds were fed a standard corn-soybean meal diet until the onset of each trial and were then randomly assigned to treatments that were fed for 2 wk. Dietary treatments included titrated levels of digestible lysine (1.18 to 1.72%) added to a basal corn-soybean meal diet with an intact crude protein content of either 21% (Experiment 1) or 18.4% (Experiments 2 and 3). All diets contained 3,100 to 3,200 kcal MEn/kg. True digestible lysine contents of the basal diets were 1.42% (Experiment 1) and 1.18% (Experiments 2 and 3), based on digestibility assays of corn and soybean meal with cecectomized turkeys. A positive control diet (28% CP, 3,175 kcal MEn/kg) was also included in the treatments for comparison. Other amino acids were maintained at levels in relation to lysine based on previous research and the Illinois Ideal Chick Protein. Broken-line analysis suggests that the digestible lysine requirement is 1.32% for optimum body weight gain and 1.34% for optimal feed:gain at the energy levels used in these studies.

Effects of biogenic amines in broiler chickens.

Biogenic amines in spoiled animal by-product feeds have been implicated in causing poor performance and intestinal lesions in broilers. This study was designed to determine if biogenic amines, at the concentrations found in animal by-product meals, would reduce performance in broilers or cause lesions. Twelve treatments were used in a 2 x 6 factorial arrangement with the main effects being either a corn-soybean meal diet or a corn-soybean meal diet with 10% animal by-products added and either no amines added or added levels of phenylethylamine (4.8 mg/kg), putrescine (49 mg/kg), cadaverine (107 mg/kg), histamine (131 mg/kg), or a combination of all these amines. Levels of biogenic amines used in this study simulated those found in areas with reported problems attributed to biogenic amines. Broilers were monitored for performance, gross lesions, and histologic evidence of lesions at 2, 4, and 6 wk. No consistent effects were observed on performance, and by the conclusion of the trial, no statistical differences were noted in the performance of any of the treatments. No gross lesions were observed on a consistent basis in any of the treatments. Histopathology was likewise unremarkable. On the basis of this study, it would appear that these four biogenic amines, at levels detected in the United States, do not pose a serious health concern for the broiler industry.

Lysine: Ideal protein in turkeys.

This paper will review current and previous research related to our work on ideal proteins for turkeys. The concept of ideal protein is not new, but has not been researched in turkeys to any extent. Ideal proteins may be defined as the exact balance of amino acids needed for maximal growth. Ideal proteins are based on digestible amino acids. Several pieces of information need to be in place before one can actually run an experiment on the digestible amino acid requirements and ideal protein. The first of these is data on digestible amino acid content of feedstuffs for turkeys. The second necessity is a low protein diet that can be used to titrate the amino acids on a digestible basis. These requirements led us to formulate a very low protein starter diet (approximately 18% intact crude protein + amino acids) with corn and soybean meal that would support maximal growth. To formulate a diet at this crude protein level, it was necessary to use the ideal protein research from other species and previous research with turkeys. We now have an estimate of the ideal protein for turkeys. The future of this work and amino acid nutrition of turkeys will be reviewed.

A low-protein diet for turkey poults.

A series of studies was conducted to determine whether a low-protein corn-soybean meal diet would support growth of turkeys similar to that supported by a standard diet. Three treatments administered in a series of experiments included: basal diet with essential amino acids (EAA), NaHCO3, and glutamic acid added at the expense of sucrose to bring the total protein up to 28% (+GLU); basal diet with EAA, NaHCO3, and sucrose added to bring the total protein content to 22% (+SUC); and a 28% crude protein standard diet that meets or exceeds NRC recommendations using intact protein sources (ST). Essential amino acid levels used in the experimental diets were based on an estimated ideal protein ratio for turkeys. The basal diet contained 18.4% intact CP from corn and soybean meal. All treatments were isocaloric with 3,172 to 3,192 kcal/kg. In all trials, the birds receiving +GLU and +SUC had adequate growth and feed:gain responses compared to birds receiving ST. The low protein basal diet with appropriate amino acid supplementation will allow for amino acid titrations to determine digestible amino acid requirements.

Digestible sulfur amino acid requirement of starting turkeys.

Three experiments (a total of 1,020 poults) were conducted to determine the digestible sulfur amino acid (SAA) requirement for female turkey poults during the starter period. Poults were fed a standard corn-soybean meal diet (PC) that met or exceeded NRC recommendations (28% CP, 3,172 kcal MEn/kg) for 1 wk and were then randomly assigned to treatments until 22 d (Experiment 2 and 3) or 23 d (Experiment 1) of age. Dietary treatments included the PC diet and seven or nine titrated levels of methionine added to a basal corn-soybean meal diet, for a total of 0.50 to 1.33% total digestible SAA. The basal diet contained 18.4% intact crude protein. All diets contained 3,171 kcal MEn/kg. The true digestible SAA content of the basal diet without methionine additions was 0.50% based on digestibility assays of the corn and soybeans with cecectomized turkeys. Diets were formulated to contain 1.40% digestible lysine. Other amino acids were maintained at levels in relation to lysine based on previous research with turkeys and the Illinois Ideal Chick Protein. Broken-line analysis suggests that the digestible SAA requirement for female turkeys during the starter period is 0.76% for optimum body weight gain and 0.75% for optimal feed:gain at the energy levels used in these studies.

Leg strength and performance of large white tom turkeys fed various protein and energy levels.

Three floor-pen experiments were conducted to determine the effects of varying protein and energy levels on body weight, feed efficiency, mortality, bone breaking-strength, and bone ash, calcium, and phosphorus in large white male turkeys. Increasing metabolizable energy by 100 kcal/kg diet increased body weight and feed efficiency. Increasing dietary protein during starter or finisher periods by 15% resulted in increased body weights by as much as 12%. Modifying dietary protein and energy levels over these ranges did not affect bone strength of toms at market weight.

Research note: failure of hippocampal lesions to influence feed and water intake in the chick.

Damage to the hippocampal region has shown varying effects on feed and water intake in rats. Three experiments were conducted to determine whether hippocampal ablation influences feed and water intake in the chick. Thirteen to 20 chicks in each trial were assigned randomly to lesioned or sham-operated control groups. Feed and water intake was monitored for 24 or 48 h following recovery from the surgical procedure. No differences were noted in either parameter measured. The current studies indicate that hippocampal ablation has no effect on ingestive behavior in the chick.

Response to angiotensin II after selective lesioning of brain regions believed to be involved in water intake regulation.

The subfornical organ (SFO) and organum vasculosum lamina terminalis (OVLT) are regions of the brain that border the third ventricle (outside the blood-brain barrier) and have been implicated in the control of water intake elicited by angiotensin II (ANGII). Studies were conducted in which the response to injected ANGII following lesions of the SFO (LSFO) or OVLT (LOVLT) in broiler chicks was observed. Three groups of birds were used for each trial: lesioned and ANGII-injected (LI); not lesioned and ANGII-injected (NLI); and not lesioned and saline-injected (NLC). In Experiment 1, water intake of LISFO was decreased through 3 h postinjection (P less than .01). Intakes of LISFO and NLCSFO were not significantly different through 1 h postinjection. The OVLT did not have an effect on cumulative water intake in response to intramuscular ANGII. Water intakes of LIOVLT and NLIOVLT did not differ from each other, but were significantly higher than NLCOVLT (P less than .05) at .5 and 1 h postinjection. Feed intake was unaltered by SFO or OVLT lesions. Feed intake was suppressed and water intake increased by ANGII injection. The present study indicates that the SFO, but not the OVLT, plays a role in ANGII-induced water intake in broiler chicks.

Water and NaCl intake of chicks as mediated by angiotensin II, renin, or salt deficiency.

Water, feed and NaCl intakes were measured in response to angiotensin II (ANGII) injected SC and ICV, and renin injected ICV, as well as to dietary salt deficiency in female broiler chicks (Gallus domesticus). In the first experiment, SC (100 micrograms/bird) and ICV (10 micrograms/bird) ANGII injection resulted in increased initial water intake. An additive effect on drinking was noted in response to consecutive daily SC injections. In addition, feed efficiency and growth were depressed following repeated ANGII injections (p less than 0.001). In a 2nd experiment, ICV ANGII stimulated increased cumulative water intake through 18 hours postinjection (p less than 0.05). Intake of 3.0% NaCl solution and feed was unaffected through 48 hours. Renin (1 microgram ICV) failed to affect cumulative water intake up to 48 hours postinjection. In the third experiment, dietary salt deficiency reduced feed intake after just 48 hours on salt-deficient diets (p less than 0.01), and growth and feed efficiency were significantly impaired (p less than 0.001) through 20 days of age. Intakes of NaCl solutions (0.8, 0.7 or 0.6%), however, were unaffected in salt-deficient vs. control birds. While the chicks in these experiments demonstrated a consistent drinking response to ANGII when injected peripherally or centrally, a salt appetite could not be elicited in these birds by components of the renin-angiotensin system or by dietary salt depletion.

The effect of thiamin deficiency on amino acids in the brain, liver, and plasma of the turkey.

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of thiamin deficiency (TD) on amino acids in brain, liver, and plasma. Twenty-seven 1-wk-old female turkeys were assigned to TD or control groups. Experimental birds were fed a TD diet; control birds received the same diet with thiamin at levels recommended by the National Research Council. Chromatographic analysis at 12 days of age found altered levels of amino acids in selected brain areas and liver of TD birds. Proline was increased in the TD archistriatum and liver. Leucine was elevated in the TD hypothalamus, medulla-pons, midbrain thalamus, and cerebellum. Threonine was lower in the hippocampus, but was increased in the liver of TD birds. Glutamine declined in the TD hippocampus, but glutamate increased in the TD liver only. Urea decreased and valine increased in the TD medulla-pons. Aspartic acid and serine decreased in the TD liver. These results indicate that dietary TD does alter amino acids in these tissues.

Efficacy of lateral ventricular injection of epinephrine, cyproheptadine, or adenosine triphosphate on feed intake in thiamin-deficient turkeys.

In previous work, thiamin deficiency (TD) resulted in decreased brain levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and epinephrine, but serotonin (5-HT) was increased in the turkey. The goal of the present study was to determine whether the introduction of calculated levels of epinephrine, ATP, or cyproheptadine into the lateral ventricle could affect feed intake of TD birds. Adenosine triphosphate, epinephrine, and cyproheptadine (5-HT antagonist) were injected into the lateral ventricle of TD and control birds. These injections did not alter feed intake in the control birds. Cyproheptadine and ATP decreased feed intake in the 1st h in the TD birds as compared with sham-injected TD birds (P less than .05), but epinephrine had no effect. The results indicate replacement or inhibition of a single altered neurochemical does not increase short-term feed intake in TD birds.

Research note: naloxone inhibits drinking in the chick induced by angiotensin II.

Subcutaneous injection of Angiotensin II (AII) induces a rapid increase in water intake in the chick. These studies were designed to determine whether this response was mediated through the opioid system. Injection of AII stimulated a rapid increase in water intake. Administration of naloxone, an opioid antagonist, attenuated AII-induced drinking in the chick. These data would indicate that the opioids may be involved in the drinking response elicited by AII.

Effect of thiamin deficiency on energy metabolites in the turkey.

The effects of thiamin deficiency on selected energy-related metabolites was investigated. A basal diet (B) was formulated to be 11% of NRC recommended level of 2 mg/kg of thiamin. Thiamin was added to this basal diet to generate the control diet (C). Twenty one-week-old female turkeys were fed either the B or C diet. On days four and five of the experiment, food intake was decreased significantly in B fed turkeys (P < 0.05). Plasma and brain samples were collected at this time. Brains were dissected and analyzed for ATP, ADP, uric acid, free fatty acids, glucose, and GABA. Adenosine triphosphate and the ATP/ADP ratio were decreased in the hindbrain (medulla-pons area) of thiamin deficient birds (P < 0.01). Uric acid was increased (P < 0.001) and free fatty acids were decreased (P < 0.0005) in the plasma of thiamin deficient birds. Based on the data, changes in ATP and ATP/ADP levels may be related to the anorectic behavior exhibited by the thiamin deficient bird.

Effects of monensin and bambermycins on the performance of market turkeys.

The effects were examined of monensin and the bambermycins in feed on growing turkeys. The drugs were used alone and in combination. A total of 1,600 hen and tom turkeys were divided into 32 pens. Four treatments were used, including 45 or 90 g/ton (907 kg) monensin either to 10 wk of age or to market age with and without adding of 2 g/ton of bambermycins. Evaluation parameters, including body weight, feed efficiency, and mortality, were done at 6, 10, and 13 wk of age for hens and 6, 10, and 18 wk of age for toms. Adding bambermycins increased body weights of hens at 10 wk of age and toms at 6 and 10 wk of age. No differences among treatments were noted at market weight within any of the parameters studied. No differences among treatments were noted in efficiency or mortality by the conclusion of the trial.

Neuroanatomical regions of the chick brain involved in monitoring amino acid deficient diets.

Chicks fed a diet deficient in tryptophan will reduce food intake dramatically. Chicks will select a balanced diet over one that is deficient in tryptophan (trp). The amygdala and prepiriform cortex have been implicated in monitoring amino acid (AA) balance, and hence food intake in rats. Therefore, comparable regions of the chick brain were studied to determine if they were involved in monitoring AA deficient diets. In each of four experiments, 48 chicks were used (24 experimentally-operated and 24 sham-operated controls). After starting on a commercial diet, chicks were fed semipurified diets: balanced (bal) or trp deficient (def). The following dietary regimen was followed in all experiments in both pre- and postoperatively; 1) bal diet for an adjustment period; 2) bal diet for 1-2 days; 3) def diet for 2-3 days; 4) choice of both diets presented simultaneously. This was followed by ablation of a brain region and then a repetition of the dietary regimen. Brain regions ablated or isolated include the nucleus taeniae (Tn), piriform cortex (CPi), frontal archistriatum (FA) and ventral archistriatum (AV). No differences in selection were observed when lesions ablating the FA, AV or Tn were performed. A significant decrease in selection of the bal diet was observed after knife cuts which isolated the piriform cortex from medial connections. It is suggested that this brain region may be involved in monitoring AA profiles in the plasma.