The measurement of plasma fructosamine as a diagnostic tool to improve the interpretation of plasma glucose and proteins in alpacas (Vicugna pacos).

This study assesses the use of fructosamine as a diagnostic tool for hyperglycemia in alpacas in view of their sensitivity to stress and susceptibility to conditions like lipid mobilization syndrome. Plasma fructosamine, like in diagnosing diabetes in cats and dogs, can reveal long-term blood glucose trends, differentiating stress-induced spikes from persistent diabetic hyperglycemia. In 125 alpacas presented as patients of a veterinary clinic, plasma glucose and fructosamine concentrations were compared for correlations with findings of the general clinical examination, laboratory parameters, demographic data, and a behavioral stress assessment processed by using principal component analysis. Hyperglycemia was observed on admission of 71% (89/125) of the animals. This was significantly associated with a higher concentration of serum cortisol and a higher behavioral stress scoring. Fructosamine above the reference limit was detected in only 15% (13/89) of the hyperglycemic individuals. In addition to a positive correlation of fructosamine to glucose concentration, positive relationships with different plasma proteins were detected. A relationship to stress parameters was not observed. These findings underscore stress as a significant trigger for hyperglycemia in alpacas and suggest fructosamine as a valuable parameter for distinguishing between stress-induced and diabetic hyperglycemia. However, the dependence of fructosamine formation on total plasma protein concentration should be considered to avoid misinterpretation.

Clinical and hematological findings in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) with and without Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae infection.

Anemia is a common problem in South American camelids (SACs). Infections with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae (CMh), a cell-wall free, hemotropic bacterium, are often suspected to be an important cause of anemia, as the pathogen infects the erythrocytes and is found in the blood of up to 30% of SACs. The information on the clinical signs of animals infected with this pathogen vary widely. Most infections are clinically inapparent. Treatment is usually carried out with oxytetracycline. A detailed overview of the clinical and hematological findings in 13 alpacas infected with Candidatus M. haemolamae (CMh+), based on patients from our university clinic and comparing those findings with the results of 22 negative alpacas (CMh-) is provided. Assignment to both groups was based on the PCR result. No relevant clinical or hematological differences between CMh+ and CMh- were found, the clinical signs in CMh+ were usually due to comorbidities. The examination of a blood smear alone proved to be insufficient; a PCR test should be carried out to confirm or rule out an infection. A critical review of the need for antibiotic treatment on the basis of a positive test result alone is recommended.

Control of Coxiella burnetii shedding in a dairy goat herd by annual offspring vaccination.

A Coxiella burnetii vaccination program, targeting only doelings, was introduced on a German goat farm to curb bacterial shedding. In 2018, adults were vaccinated with a C. burnetii Phase I vaccine at three-weeks apart following pathogen diagnosis, with a booster administered six months later due to sustained high shedding. From 2018 to 2021, doelings received two vaccine doses without any further boosters. To assess the program's efficacy, vaginal swabs from up to 40 animals per age group were collected during kidding seasons from 2019 to 2022. Bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were gathered monthly from January 2018 to October 2022 to monitor herd-level shedding. Real-time PCR analysis determined genome equivalents in all three sample types. Serum samples were taken before the initial immunization and during the post-kidding season from up to 40 goats per age group annually from 2018 to 2022. Phase-specific ELISAs determined IgG Phase I and Phase II antibodies. Additionally, two serum samples per age group from 2022 were analyzed using a neutralization assay. A few goats continued shedding small quantities during subsequent kidding seasons. Although positive BTM samples decreased, they displayed an undulating trend. Most age groups exhibited robust IgG Phase I responses and lower IgG Phase II levels post immunization. Mean IgG levels remained elevated until the study ended compared to pre-vaccination levels in most age groups. Additionally, neutralizing antibodies were present regardless of IgG response. Overall, double vaccination induced lasting antibody levels, but did not entirely prevent C. burnetii shedding. The resilience of the observed humoral immune activity requires further investigation.

Fructosamine in llamas (Lama glama) is associated with sex, body condition score, and hematologic and serum parameters.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to provide orientation values for fructosamine in adult llamas and to characterize relationships with other laboratory and clinical parameters. ANIMALS: Data from 22 healthy adult llamas of both sexes. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted with the findings of a veterinary herd visit from August 2022. Fructosamine measured from plasma samples was characterized, and its relationships with clinical and laboratory diagnostic data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. RESULTS: Fructosamine was 311 ± 34 µmol/L (mean ± SD), with a range of 254.8 to 409.2 µmol/L. Males showed significantly higher plasma fructosamine levels than females (P < .05). Plasma fructosamine revealed significant positive correlations with glucose, total protein, and albumin and also with PCV, hemoglobin, calcium, sodium, and selenium. Female llamas revealed further positive correlations with body condition scoring. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study can be used as orientation values for fructosamine in llamas. Fructosamine is used to distinguish acute hyperglycemia caused by stress from chronic hyperglycemia in other species, which might be caused by disorders of the glucose metabolism.

First Evidence of Leishmania infantum Antibodies in Sheep (Ovis aries) from Southern Germany.

In Europe, Leishmania infantum is the most prevalent Leishmania species, and this protozoan is transmitted by phlebotomine sandflies. A recent publication has shown that sheep harbor L. infantum antibodies. This raises questions about the epidemiological role of small ruminants. Therefore, sera from small ruminants located in two southern German federal states, Baden-Wuerttemberg (BW) and Bavaria (BAV), were analyzed with an ELISA to determine the presence of L. infantum antibodies. The species, sex and age (gimmer vs. ewe) were recorded, and a univariate analysis was conducted to determine possible associations. In total, seven sheep flocks (274 sheep/10 goats) from BW and seven sheep flocks (277 sheep/78 goats) from BAV were examined. In BW, four sheep from three flocks tested positive for L. infantum antibodies. In BAV, the same number of positive sheep were detected but in four flocks. The total seropositivity rate in sheep was 1.45%. All goats tested negative. No significant association (p > 0.05) was detected between Leishmania seropositivity and the variables evaluated. Our study reveals the exposure of sheep to L. infantum in a non-endemic area. Further investigation is needed to determine whether sheep can be used as sentinels to identify new phlebotomine habitats and Leishmania risk areas.

Exposure of small ruminants to the Schmallenberg arbovirus in Germany from 2017 to 2018 - animal-specific and flock-management-related risk factors.

The Schmallenberg virus (SBV), an emerging Orthobunyavirus of mainly ruminant hosts, caused a substantial epidemic in European ruminant populations between 2011 and 2013. The pathogen is transmitted by arthropod vectors (Culicoides spp.) and can cause reproductive disorders and severe malformations of the offspring or stillbirth. The present study aimed to assess SBV seroprevalence among German sheep and goats a few years after the first virus detection in the country (November 2011). In addition, an extensive risk factor analysis including host-specific and husbandry-related factors was implemented. Seroprevalence was determined by examining serum samples from 2759 sheep and 446 goats out of a total of 70 flocks across five German federal states. The samples were withdrawn in the period between 2017 and 2018. Using a commercial competitive ELISA, antibodies against SBV were detected in all 70 investigated flocks. A percentage of 60.1 % (1657/2759) of the sheep and 40.4 % (180/446) of the goat sera contained SBV antibodies. Generalized linear mixed modeling revealed significant effects of host species (sheep > goats), age (old > young) and sex (female > male) on SBV seroprevalence. For both species, also the farming purpose, and for goats, ectoparasite treatment and the presence of cattle on the farm played a role in terms of risk for SBV exposure. The observations from this study still emphasize a wide distribution of the pathogen in Germany. Nevertheless, the observed seroprevalence might not be sufficient to achieve effective herd immunity. Pinpointing risk factors identified susceptible populations for targeted vaccination programs to reduce potential animal losses caused by SBV.

[Choanal atresia in an alpaca cria (Vicugna pacos)]. / Choanenatresie bei einem Alpakacria (Vicugna pacos).

After birth, an alpaca cria was noticed to exhibit weakness and respiratory distress, particularly when attempting to suckle milk from the dam's udder. Clinical findings indicated the presence of bilateral choanal atresia and the animal was subsequently euthanised. A computed tomography scan and a pathological examination were performed to describe the malformation in detail. Choanal atresia is a common malformation in neonatal South American camelids, surgical treatment is not recommended. This case report provides an overview of the clinical findings as well as the results of imaging and pathologic examinations and may help to raise awareness of this malformation for early recognition.

Relationships between body condition score, body weight and body measurements in alpacas.

BACKGROUND: The nutritional status in alpacas is often masked by their dense fibre coat. Its assessment is commonly approached by different body condition scores (BCS) that rely on manual palpation of defined anatomical regions. However, BCS is an important diagnostic tool to aid recognition of diseased South American camelids (SACs) and low BCS has been associated with conditions like anaemia and neutrophilia. For dose-dependent veterinary treatment, body weight (BW), that should be as accurate as possible, is required. As on-site weighing with scales is often not possible, BW can mostly only be roughly estimated. To date, it remains unclear whether BCS in alpacas provides reliable information on BW or the ratios of BW to body length commonly known as Body Mass Index (BMI) or Ponderal Index (PI). Equations to estimate BW based on body measurements are available in the literature. Nonetheless, respective equations were developed in growing alpacas or adult llamas and BCS was not included. RESULTS: To compare six different BCS approaches and to examine the relationship between BCS and BW, body measurements and BCS scores were recorded in a herd of 105 alpacas. The examined BCS approaches showed significant (p < 0.05) but poor to moderate positive correlations to BW, BMI or PI. A solely visual inspection of BCS, in contrast, was not correlated with BW, BMI or PI. Equations previously developed in other studies provided an accurate estimation of BW. Multiple linear regression showed that the accuracy in predicting BW could be further increased by adding BCS data and sex. CONCLUSION: Our observations indicate that most selected BCS approaches are not only important measures of nutritional status but can also be used to create more accurate models for BW calculation in alpacas. The study also supports the claim that a purely visual inspection of alpacas is not an adequate method to evaluate the nutritional status of these animals.

Rhododendron poisoning in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) in Northern Germany.

Poisoning is often suspected to be the origin of disease in South American camelids (SACs) by owners, but only in a few cases this assumption can be confirmed. In small ruminants, rhododendron poisoning is a common emergency for livestock veterinarians. However, this condition has rarely been reported in SACs so far. This paper provides information regarding clinical findings, hematology, clinical chemistry, and treatment of four alpacas after presumed intake of rhododendron leaves including pathological findings of one of the animals. Rhododendron leaves contain grayanatoxins that lead to hyperpolarization of excitable cells. Clinical signs that were observed in the presented alpacas comprised: salivation, dehydration, decreased motility of compartment 1, uncoordinated regurgitation, and cardiac arrhythmia. Clinical chemistry revealed that rhododendron poisoning was associated with metabolic acidosis and azotaemia, hyponatremia and hyperkalemia. Most striking macroscopic and histopathological findings included gastric ulceration, and renal infarcts along with inflammatory changes. Leaves of Rhododendron spp. were identified in the forestomach content of this animal. Affected animals were treated symptomatically as there is no specific antidote in rhododendron poisoning. This included parenteral rehydration, treatment of metabolic acidosis (infusion of sodium bicarbonate solution), and oral administration of activated charcoal to bind potential toxins. In addition, antibiotic treatment might be necessary to prevent aspiration pneumonia in case of uncoordinated regurgitation. Of the four animals, the worst affected alpaca was euthanized, one had minimal signs and two responded to supportive care and recovered. In conclusion, rhododendron poisoning might be fatal for alpacas in individual cases and therefore rhododendron bushes should not be placed in the habitat of SACs.

Hematologic parameters in female alpacas during age progression: a retrospective study.

Alpacas, like all camelids, have elliptical red blood cells (RBCs) in contrast to other mammals. This particular shape is important for increased osmotic resistance and stability. Age-related changes in the RBC count are known in other species, with alterations in both red and white blood cells being described. In alpacas, there are few data on age-related changes, and only a comparison of crias with adult animals. We characterized age-related hematologic changes in a study of 21 female alpacas from a research herd. A total of 87 records of clinically healthy alpacas of different ages were statistically analyzed retrospectively from the hematologic records over a nine-year period. Significant positive correlations of age with hemoglobin (Hb), HCT, MCV, MCH, neutrophils, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) were found as well as significant negative correlations of age with lymphocytes in addition to lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR). A paired comparison of eight older animals in the herd at three different ages also showed significant differences in the parameters Hb, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils. Similar changes in hematologic parameters have been reported in other species and should be taken into account when interpreting hematologic results in alpacas.

Detection of Coxiella burnetii in the mammary gland of a dairy goat.

The zoonotic bacterium Coxiella (C.) burnetii can be excreted by infected goats through birth products and milk. The detection of C. burnetii DNA in the mammary gland tissue of infected dairy goats and intermittent milk shedders has been reported, but confirmation of C. burnetii bacteria in the udder remained pending. The pathogen caused abortions in a 152-head dairy goat herd, resulting in the vaccination against C. burnetii of the entire herd with annual boosters. To monitor the C. burnetii shedding at herd level, monthly bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were analyzed using PCR (IS1111). Despite vaccination, C. burnetii DNA was detected in BTM samples within the first 16 months of the study. Therefore, individual milk samples were tested on four different occasions several months apart to identify potential intermittent milk shedders. Only one goat (#67455) tested positive three times. This goat was necropsied to investigate the presence of C. burnetii in the udder and other organs. PCR detected C. burnetii DNA solely in both mammary glands and the left teat cistern. Immunohistological examination identified C. burnetii antigen in mammary gland tissue, confirmed by the detection of C. burnetii bacteria in the mammary epithelial cells using fluorescence in situ hybridization. The removal of goat #67455 led to negative BTM samples until the end of the study. The findings demonstrate the occurrence of C. burnetii in the mammary gland of a naturally infected and vaccinated goat. The presence possibly contributed to intermittent milk shedding of goat #67455, and the mammary gland tissue may serve as a replicative niche for C. burnetii.

Anaemia in South American camelids - an overview of clinical and laboratory diagnostics.

South American camelids (SACs) play an increasing role in veterinary care in Europe. Many alpacas or llamas presented to veterinarians suffer from anaemia, regularly with a packed cell volume (PCV) below 0.10 l/l, which is a life-threatening condition for the animals. This review article presents clinical and laboratory diagnostic tools for the diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. Clinical identification of anaemic animals can be performed by assessing the FAMACHA© score and the Body Condition Score (BCS), since anaemia in alpacas and llamas correlates with pale mucous membranes and a lowered BCS. Haematological examination of a blood sample can provide a more differentiated diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. A common finding is regenerative anaemia with an increased number of reticulocytes that is often caused by blood loss due to Haemonchus contortus. Changes in a blood smear from an alpaca or llama with regenerative anaemia may include normoblasts (nucleated red blood cells), anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, polychromasia, Howell-Jolly bodies or basophilic stippling. Furthermore, non-regenerative anaemia, often caused by trace element deficiency or cachexia, can also occur.

Body condition scoring in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama) - a scoping review.

Assessment of the body condition score (BCS) is an important tool to check the nutritional status of an animal, and thus can provide important information in herd management, but also in the veterinary examination of individual animals. In dairy farming, BCS has been recognized as an important parameter for a long time already, but over the years body condition scoring has also become more important for other species. Especially in South American camelids (SACs: alpacas and llamas), whose dense coat can hide a poor nutritional status for a long time, regular assessment of the BCS is recommended by different authors and organizations. To date, there are several instructions for the assessment of the BCS in SACs, which, however, differ significantly in some points. For a consistent approach, a total of 35 instructions for the BCS in SACs were compared in a scoping review. The spine, especially the lumbar vertebrae as well as the ribs were identified as the two main body sites recommended for assessing the BCS. Furthermore, the area between the front and rear leg and the pelvis were mentioned frequently; however, these body sites were discussed controversially. The paralumbar fossa, shoulder, and udder were only mentioned sporadically. Among the various scales, the 1-5 scale was mentioned most frequently, with the optimal BCS being 3. Nonetheless, physiological fluctuation due to breed, age, sex, pregnancy, and lactation have to be considered. The BCS should be assessed each time the animals are handled, but at least monthly. In contrast to body weight, the BCS reflects the nutritional status of an animal even after a single examination. The review showed that much of the available information on the assessment of BCS in SACs is based on practical experience rather than scientific evidence. Indeed, some of the assumptions made there might still have to be verified or modified.

Interdisciplinary studies on Coxiella burnetii: From molecular to cellular, to host, to one health research.

The Q-GAPS (Q fever GermAn interdisciplinary Program for reSearch) consortium was launched in 2017 as a German consortium of more than 20 scientists with exceptional expertise, competence, and substantial knowledge in the field of the Q fever pathogen Coxiella (C.) burnetii. C. burnetii exemplifies as a zoonotic pathogen the challenges of zoonotic disease control and prophylaxis in human, animal, and environmental settings in a One Health approach. An interdisciplinary approach to studying the pathogen is essential to address unresolved questions about the epidemiology, immunology, pathogenesis, surveillance, and control of C. burnetii. In more than five years, Q-GAPS has provided new insights into pathogenicity and interaction with host defense mechanisms. The consortium has also investigated vaccine efficacy and application in animal reservoirs and identified expanded phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of C. burnetii and their epidemiological significance. In addition, conceptual principles for controlling, surveilling, and preventing zoonotic Q fever infections were developed and prepared for specific target groups. All findings have been continuously integrated into a Web-based, interactive, freely accessible knowledge and information platform (www.q-gaps.de), which also contains Q fever guidelines to support public health institutions in controlling and preventing Q fever. In this review, we will summarize our results and show an example of how an interdisciplinary consortium provides knowledge and better tools to control a zoonotic pathogen at the national level.

[Diaphragmatic hernia in a female alpaca (Vicugna pacos)]. / Zwerchfellhernie bei einer Alpakastute (Vicugna pacos).

A 3-year-old pregnant female alpaca was noticed due to increased lying and decreased feed intake after shearing. Twelve days after shearing, she aborted an almost completely developed cria. After another two days, the alpaca was recumbent and subsequently died during transport to the clinic. A dissection of the carcass revealed a diaphragmatic hernia. Diaphragmatic hernias have been described in many different species, diagnosis can be made by radiography or ultrasound. Depending on the extent, surgical therapy may be successful.

Efficacy of flukicides against Fasciola hepatica and first report of triclabendazole resistance on German sheep farms.

Fasciola hepatica infections lead to severe health problems and production losses in sheep farming, if not treated effectively. Triclabendazole has been used extensively over decades due to its unique efficacy range against all definitive hostfluke stages but published data about the susceptibility of F. hepatica to anthelmintics in Germany are lacking. This study aimed to identify current F. hepatica infections in German sheep flocks by coproscopic examinations and to evaluate the efficacy of anthelmintics with a focus on triclabendazole in a field study conducted from 2020 to 2022. Initial screening included 71 sheep farms, many of them with known history of fasciolosis. In this highly biased sample set, the frequency of F. hepatica infection at individual sheep and farm level were 12.8% and 35.2%, respectively. Additionally, eggs of Paramphistominae were found at frequencies of 4.8% and 15.5% at individual sheep and farm level, respectively. Due to low egg shedding intensity, faecal egg count reduction (FECR) tests could only be conducted on a few farms. The efficacy of triclabendazole was tested on 11 farms and albendazole on one farm, including 3-53 sheep/farm. Individual faecal samples were collected before and two weeks after treatment to evaluate the FECR using the sedimentation or FLUKEFINDER® or a modified FLUKEFINDER® method. On all farms a coproantigen reduction test was conducted in parallel. Lacking efficacy of triclabendazole even at double dosage was shown on one farm associated with a high number of animal losses due to acute fasciolosis. On this farm, the Fasciola miracidium development test was additionally performed, revealing a high in vitro ovicidal activity of albendazole while closantel was effective in vivo. On all other farms, sufficient efficacy of triclabendazole was observed. In conclusion, triclabendazole resistance appears not to be widespread on German sheep farms but, when present, can have serious effects on animal health.

Two Years after Coxiella burnetii Detection: Pathogen Shedding and Phase-Specific Antibody Response in Three Dairy Goat Herds.

The infection dynamics of Coxiella (C.) burnetii were investigated in three dairy goat herds (A, B, and C) 2 years after the first pathogen detection. A total of 28 and 29 goats from herds A and B, and 35 goats from herd C, were examined. Sera were analyzed on three sampling dates using phase-specific serology. Pathogen shedding was assessed using post-partum vaginal swabs and monthly bulk tank milk (BTM) samples. Dust samples from a barn and milking parlor were also collected monthly. These samples were analyzed with PCR (target IS1111). In herd A, individual animals tested seropositive, while vaginal swabs, BTM, and most dust samples tested negative. Herds B and C exhibited high IgG phase I activity, indicating a past infection. In herd B, approximately two-thirds of the goats shed C. burnetii with vaginal mucus, and irregular positive results were obtained from BTM. Herd C had two positive goats based on vaginal swabs, and BTM tested positive once. Dust samples from herds B and C contained C. burnetii DNA, with higher quantities typically found in samples from the milking parlor. This study highlights the different infection dynamics in three unvaccinated dairy goat herds and the potential use of dust samples as a supportive tool to detect C. burnetii at the herd level.

Teaching clinical hematology and leukocyte differentiation in veterinary medicine using virtual patients.

Due to contact restrictions imposed because of the COVID-19 pandemic, we created a novel digital course on the Moodle learning platform for winter term in 2020. In the clinical pathology course (CPC) with hematological content, third-year students were able to work independently on 10 extra digital cases of internal medicine involving eight different animal species as a compensation for the reduction in traditional microscopy exercises. Each case presented was initiated using an anamnesis, also the participants to generate a differential blood count based on digitized leukocytes, previously been photographed using a microscope camera. The cases were successive and increased in complexity, for example through the increase in the number of different cell types to be differentiated. The participants had the opportunity to evaluate the course through a final module to rate user-friendliness and acceptance. The total results of the participants in 2021 were analyzed descriptively, focusing on success rates, time spent on the tasks, and number of attempts. A total of 237 (= 96%) of 247 students completed all cases, each assessing 1033 photographed blood cells in sum. The mean processing time was 22.48 min for a differentiation and the students spent an average of 1.48 attempts on it. A voluntary feedback form was completed by 192 (= 78%) students, with more than 95% rating the course positively in 12 evaluation questions, and 29 of 33 comments (= 87.88%) providing positive statements in a comment box. Suggestions for improvement primarily included more explanations on erythrocyte morphologies, followed by adjusting the difficulty level and improving the presentational set-up. Slight improvements in results, time spent on processing the tasks, and the number of attempts indicated an achievement of routine and confidence during the course and were associated with an increase of competency. The positive feedback showed a high acceptance of the digital format and students evaluated the course as improving the quality of teaching when combined with practical exercises.

Severe anaemia secondary to a perforated gastric ulcer in a male alpaca.

BACKGROUND: Anaemia is a common condition in alpacas and attributable to a variety of causes. Severe anaemia with a packed cell volume (PCV) less than 10% is frequently diagnosed, usually due to blood loss resulting from haemonchosis. Many South American camelids (SACs) also suffer from gastric ulcers, which are often associated with anaemia in other species. However, in alpacas and llamas, gastric ulcers usually do not lead to anaemia due to blood loss according to the current literature. There are no detailed clinical and laboratory data on this condition in the scientific literature so far. CASE PRESENTATION: We report on the case of a nine-year-old male alpaca that was presented to the clinic with suspected forestomach acidosis. The animal showed clinical signs of colic, hypothermia, tachypnea, tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and died shortly after admission to the clinic. Laboratory diagnosis revealed a markedly decreased haematocrit (0.13 l/l), leucopaenia with band neutrophils, azotaemia, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphataemia and vitamin D deficiency. Post-mortem examination revealed multiple ulcers in the first and third compartment with perforation of one ulcer in the first compartment, resulting in intraluminal blood loss and purulent peritonitis. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first detailed description of clinical and laboratory data of severe anaemia due to a perforated gastric ulcer in a SAC. Although the current literature suggests that severe blood loss due to gastric ulcers does not occur in SACs, this condition should be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in anaemic animals. Clinical indicators can be colic and pale mucous membranes.