BMScope: A scoping review to chart the evolving clinical study landscape in brain and leptomeningeal metastasis.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have challenged the notion that patients with brain metastasis (BM) or leptomeningeal metastasis (LM) should be excluded from systemic therapy clinical trials. This scoping study summarises the BM/LM clinical studies published between 2010 and 2023. METHODS: MEDLINE, CINAHL, CAB Abstracts, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, HINARI, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and EMBASE electronic databases were searched on 21 June 2021. An updated search was performed on 21 February 2023. Eligible studies should involve investigation of a therapeutic intervention in solid tumour patients with BM and/or LM and a reported patient outcome. Extracted study-level data, included study type, publication date, geographical location, number of BM/LM patients in study, primary tumour type and type of therapeutic intervention. RESULTS: 4921 unique studies were eligible for analysis. The key finding is that BM/LM clinical research is expanding globally, both observational studies and clinical trials. Despite the shift over time towards a higher proportion of systemic therapy trials, the majority still do not include patients with symptomatic disease and lack reporting of BM/LM specific endpoints. Globally, there has been a trend to more international collaboration in BM/LM clinical studies. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of the BM/LM literature charts the evolving landscape of studies involving this previously excluded population. Given the increasing clinical research activity, particularly involving late-stage systemic therapy trials, it is imperative that due consideration is given to the intracranial activity of new investigational agents. Wider adoption of standardised reporting of intracranial-specific endpoints will facilitate evaluation of relative intracranial efficacy.

Checkpoint inhibitor-associated bullous cutaneous immune-related adverse events: a multicentre observational study.

BACKGROUND: Checkpoint inhibitor (CPI) therapy has significantly improved overall survival in several cancers including metastatic melanoma (MM) and in the adjuvant setting. Cutaneous immune-related adverse events (irAEs) secondary to CPIs are commonly observed; however, autoimmune blistering disorders such as bullous pemphigoid (BP) are rare. OBJECTIVES: To review the prevalence, incidence risk, clinicopathological features and management of toxicity in bullous cutaneous irAEs associated with CPI therapy. METHODS: A multicentre, retrospective, observational study of CPI-associated bullous irAEs in adults with all cancers across four UK specialist centres between 2006 and 2019. RESULTS: In total, 7391 patients were identified. CPI-associated bullous irAEs including BP (n = 16) occurred in 0·3% (n = 22). The median age of onset was 76 years, and there was a male predominance. Most patients had cutaneous melanoma (73%, n = 16), of which 81% (13 of 16) were BRAF wildtype. Grade 1, 2, 3 and 4 skin toxicity occurred in 9%, 45%, 41% and 5%, respectively. The mucosae were involved in 27%, and 25% of confirmed cases of BP did not present with bullae. The median time to onset of bullous irAEs was 12 months, with a median total symptom duration of 6 months. Single PD-1/PD-L1 agents had a longer time to onset of symptoms than combination therapy (median 12 vs. 7 months, respectively). Overall, 91%, 64% and 9% of patients required one, two or three lines of treatment, respectively. Two cases occurred after completion of CPIs (1 and 3 months). Of the 20 cases that presented while on CPIs this was permanently discontinued in 55% (11 of 20) and temporarily held in 20% (four of 20). In the four held cases of CPI, bullous eruption reflared in 50%. CONCLUSIONS: CPI-associated bullous skin toxicity is a rare cutaneous irAE occurring in approximately 0·3% of cases over 13 years of treated patients in this series. Not all cases are diagnostic of BP, but management remains the same. There is a prolonged latency of onset compared with other cutaneous irAEs, with a median time of 12 months, and they can occur after cessation of therapy. Discontinuation of CPIs may be required. Recognizing bullous irAEs promptly and referral to dermatology are essential to optimize management and improve patient outcomes and tumour responses. What is already known about this topic? Checkpoint inhibitor (CPI)-associated bullous pemphigoid is a rare dermatological immune-related adverse event (irAE) that has been reported in small case series and reports. What does this study add? This is the largest multicentre, observational study conducted in the UK over the longest period of 13 years, which demonstrates an overall incidence of bullous cutaneous irAEs secondary to CPIs of 0·3%. Clinical presentation is variable, with one-quarter of patients with bullous pemphigoid presenting without bullae, and mucosal involvement was noted in 27%. Prolonged pruritus is frequently a prodromal symptom. The median time to diagnosis is 12 months and irAEs rarely present after cessation of treatment. Time to onset of symptoms is longer with a single CPI, but with a shorter duration of symptoms compared with combination CPI therapy. Most patients had cutaneous melanoma, of which 81% were BRAF wildtype.

Efficacy of anti-PD-1 and ipilimumab alone or in combination in acral melanoma.

BACKGROUND: Acral melanoma is a rare melanoma subtype with poor prognosis. Importantly, these patients were not identified as a specific subgroup in the landmark melanoma trials involving ipilimumab and the anti-programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) agents nivolumab and pembrolizumab. There is therefore an absence of prospective clinical trial evidence regarding the efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) in this population. Acral melanoma has lower tumor mutation burden (TMB) than other cutaneous sites, and primary site is associated with differences in TMB. However the impact of this on the effectiveness of immune CPIs is unknown. We examined the efficacy of CPIs in acral melanoma, including by primary site. METHODS: Patients with unresectable stage III/IV acral melanoma treated with CPI (anti-PD-1 and/or ipilimumab) were studied. Multivariable logistic and Cox regression analyses were conducted. Primary outcome was objective response rate (ORR); secondary outcomes were progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: In total, 325 patients were included: 234 (72%) plantar, 69 (21%) subungual and 22 (7%) palmar primary sites. First CPI included: 184 (57%) anti-PD-1, 59 (18%) anti-PD-1/ipilimumab combination and 82 (25%) ipilimumab. ORR was significantly higher with initial anti-PD-1/ipilimumab compared with anti-PD-1 (43% vs 26%, HR 2.14, p=0.0004) and significantly lower with ipilimumab (15% vs 26%, HR 0.49, p=0.0016). Landmark PFS at 1 year was highest for anti-PD-1/ipilimumab at 34% (95% CI 24% to 49%), compared with 26% (95% CI 20% to 33%) with anti-PD-1 and 10% (95% CI 5% to 19%) with ipilimumab. Despite a trend for increased PFS, anti-PD-1/ipilimumab combination did not significantly improve PFS (HR 0.85, p=0.35) or OS over anti-PD-1 (HR 1.30, p=0.16), potentially due to subsequent therapies and high rates of acquired resistance. No outcome differences were found between primary sites. CONCLUSION: While the ORR to anti-PD-1/ipilimumab was significantly higher than anti-PD-1 and PFS numerically higher, in this retrospective cohort this benefit did not translate to improved OS. Future trials should specifically include patients with acral melanoma, to help determine the optimal management of this important melanoma subtype.

Patient and treatment characteristics of emergency presentations due to immune-mediated toxicities.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of immune-mediated toxicities from immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is well described. However, the characteristics and treatment patterns for patients with emergency presentations owing to immune-mediated toxicity are less well known. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study reviews all emergency presentations in patients treated with ICI at a single centre between May 2018 and March 2020. The aims were to describe and quantify patient and treatment characteristics, toxicity type and outcomes. RESULTS: 1165 patients were treated with ICI, and there were 597 emergency presentations in 370 patients. Of these, 191/597 (32%) were owing to an immune-mediated toxicity, median age was 64 years, and 127/191 (67%) were men. The most common tumour types were melanoma (53%) and lung cancer (22%), and the most common ICI received was ipilimumab + nivolumab combination immunotherapy (42%), followed by pembrolizumab monotherapy (21%) and nivolumab monotherapy (20%). The median number of cycles received was three (range 1-54), and 75/191 (39%) had previous ≥ grade 2 immune-mediated toxicity. 29% patients required second-line immunosuppression. The median time in the hospital was four days. There was a rising number of emergency presentations reflecting overall increasing use of ICI. CONCLUSIONS: Over a quarter of patients treated with ICI had an emergency presentation, and immune-mediated toxicity accounted for 32% of these. A diagnosis of melanoma, treatment with combination immunotherapy and previous ≥ grade 2 immune-mediated toxicity were common in patients with immune-mediated toxicity. These data allow better identification of patients likely to require admission and forward planning for acute oncology services.

A non-hierarchical organization of tumorigenic NG2 cells in glioblastoma promoted by EGFR.

BACKGROUND: Expression of neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2) identifies an aggressive malignant phenotype in glioblastoma (GBM). Mouse models have implicated NG2 in the genesis, evolution, and maintenance of glial cancers and have highlighted potential interactions between NG2 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). However, it is unknown whether the lineage relationship of NG2+ and NG2- cells follows a hierarchical or stochastic mode of growth. Furthermore, the interaction between NG2 and EGFR signaling in human GBM is also unclear. METHODS: Single GBM NG2+ and NG2- cells were studied longitudinally to assess lineage relationships. Short hairpin RNA knockdown of NG2 was used to assess the mechanistic role of NG2 in human GBM cells. NG2+ and NG2- cells and NG2 knockdown (NG2-KD) and wild type (NG2-WT) cells were analyzed for differential effects on EGFR signaling. RESULTS: Expression of NG2 endows an aggressive phenotype both at single cell and population levels. Progeny derived from single GBM NG2- or GBM NG2+ cells consistently establish phenotypic equilibrium, indicating the absence of a cellular hierarchy. NG2 knockdown reduces proliferation, and mice grafted with NG2-KD survive longer than controls. Finally, NG2 promotes EGFR signaling and is associated with EGFR expression. CONCLUSIONS: These data support a dynamic evolution in which a bidirectional relationship exists between GBM NG2+ and GBM NG2- cells. Such findings have implications for understanding phenotypic heterogeneity, the emergence of resistant disease, and developing novel therapeutics.

The NG2 Proteoglycan Protects Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells against Oxidative Stress via Interaction with OMI/HtrA2.

The NG2 proteoglycan is characteristically expressed by oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC) and also by aggressive brain tumours highly resistant to chemo- and radiation therapy. Oligodendrocyte-lineage cells are particularly sensitive to stress resulting in cell death in white matter after hypoxic or ischemic insults of premature infants and destruction of OPC in some types of Multiple Sclerosis lesions. Here we show that the NG2 proteoglycan binds OMI/HtrA2, a mitochondrial serine protease which is released from damaged mitochondria into the cytosol in response to stress. In the cytosol, OMI/HtrA2 initiates apoptosis by proteolytic degradation of anti-apoptotic factors. OPC in which NG2 has been downregulated by siRNA, or OPC from the NG2-knockout mouse show an increased sensitivity to oxidative stress evidenced by increased cell death. The proapoptotic protease activity of OMI/HtrA2 in the cytosol can be reduced by the interaction with NG2. Human glioma expressing high levels of NG2 are less sensitive to oxidative stress than those with lower NG2 expression and reducing NG2 expression by siRNA increases cell death in response to oxidative stress. Binding of NG2 to OMI/HtrA2 may thus help protect cells against oxidative stress-induced cell death. This interaction is likely to contribute to the high chemo- and radioresistance of glioma.

Contributions to drug resistance in glioblastoma derived from malignant cells in the sub-ependymal zone.

Glioblastoma, the most common and aggressive adult brain tumor, is characterized by extreme phenotypic diversity and treatment failure. Through fluorescence-guided resection, we identified fluorescent tissue in the sub-ependymal zone (SEZ) of patients with glioblastoma. Histologic analysis and genomic characterization revealed that the SEZ harbors malignant cells with tumor-initiating capacity, analogous to cells isolated from the fluorescent tumor mass (T). We observed resistance to supramaximal chemotherapy doses along with differential patterns of drug response between T and SEZ in the same tumor. Our results reveal novel insights into glioblastoma growth dynamics, with implications for understanding and limiting treatment resistance.

Characteristics and outcome of patients with DNACPR orders in an acute hospital; an observational study.

AIMS: To establish the characteristics and outcomes of patients with Do Not Attempt Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (DNACPR) orders; to assess whether particular patient characteristics are associated with discussing resuscitation orders with patients. METHODS: Retrospective case note analysis from an acute hospital in 2009 was performed on: all in-hospital deaths; all patients who had carbon-copies of their DNACPR forms returned to the resuscitation department and a sample of age-matched discharged patients without known DNACPR order forms. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to test the significance of the associations and calculate odds ratios. RESULTS: Of 541 sampled patients, 51% of patients with DNACPR orders were discharged. Baseline characteristics of those who had in-hospital deaths or were discharged with DNACPR orders were similar. The overall one-year mortality for patients with a DNACPR order was 83%. 50% of patients had documentation of having DNACPR orders discussed: this was consistent across patient characteristics including those who were discharged and those who had in-hospital deaths. Cases of "inappropriate" resuscitation attempts were identified. CONCLUSIONS: About half of patients with DNACPR orders were discharged home, and 17% were alive at one year. Characteristics of patients and frequency of discussions were similar in those who died or were discharged. Current focus of use of DNACPR orders only on those identified as most likely to die makes inappropriate resuscitation attempt a likely occurrence, and care is required to ensure conflation with "end of life" pathways does not distort the treatments given to this vulnerable group.

Enhanced stability and activity of temozolomide in primary glioblastoma multiforme cells with cucurbit[n]uril.

Temozolomide (TMZ) is the primary chemotherapeutic agent for treatment of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) yet it has a fast rate of degradation under physiological conditions to the 'active' MTIC, which has poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier and cellular absorption. Herein we have demonstrated binding of TMZ within the cavity of nano-container cucurbit[7]uril, resulting in a decreased rate of drug degradation. Prolonging the lifetime of the TMZ under physiological conditions through encapsulation dramatically improved the drug's activity against primary GBM cell lines as more TMZ could be absorbed by the cells before degradation. This work can potentially lead to increases in the drug's propensity for crossing the blood-brain barrier and absorption into the GBM cells, thereby increasing the efficacy of this chemotherapy.

A review of the role of stem cells in the development and treatment of glioma.

The neurosurgical management of patients with intrinsic glial cancers is one of the most rapidly evolving areas of practice. This has been fuelled by advances in surgical technique not only in cytoreduction but also in drug delivery. Further innovation will depend on a deeper understanding of the biology of the disease and an appreciation of the limitations of current knowledge. Here we review the controversial topic of cancer stem cells applied to glioma to provide neurosurgeons with a working overview. It is now recognised that the adult human brain contains regionally specified cell populations capable of self-renewal that may contribute to tumour growth and maintenance following accumulated mutational change. Tumour cells adapted to maintain growth demonstrate some stem-like characteristics and as such constitute a legitimate therapeutic target. Cellular reprogramming technologies raise the potential of developing stem cells as novel surgical tools to target disease and possibly ameliorate some of the consequences of treatment. Achieving these goals remains a significant challenge to neurosurgical oncologists, not least in challenging how we think about treating brain cancer. This review will briefly examine our understanding of adult stem cells within the brain, the evidence that they contribute to the development of brain tumours as tumour-initiating cells, and the potential implications for therapy. It will also look at the role stem cells may play in the future management of glioma.

The detection of macrosomia at a teaching hospital.

We sought to determine the detection (clinical or sonographic) rate of macrosomic newborns (at least 4000 g) and the peripartum factors among those who were or were not identified accurately. We retrospectively reviewed all deliveries over 1 year and all maternal and neonatal charts of macrosomic newborns delivered during that year. Odds ratio (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Over a 12-month period, the rate of macrosomia was 10% (421/4194) and of those, only 11% (95% CI 8 to 14%) were suspected clinically or sonographically. None of the newborns weighing 4500 g or more were recognized before birth (0/57; 95% CI 0 to 6%). The rate of cesarean delivery was significantly higher among newborns correctly identified as macrosomic (58%) versus those missed (36%; OR 2.76, 95% CI 1.46, 5.16). The incidence of newborns weighing in excess of 4000 g is 10%, and approximately 90% of these macrosomic newborns were unsuspected before birth.

Electrochemical sensor for predicting transformer overload by phenol measurement.

Transformer overload is a significant problem to the power transmission industry, with severe safety and cost implications. Overload may be predicted by measuring phenol levels in the transformer-insulating oil, arising from the thermolytic degradation of phenol-formaldehyde resins. The development of two polyphenol oxidase (PPO) sensors, based on monitoring the enzymatic consumption of oxygen using an oxygen electrode, or reduction of enzymatically generated o-quinone at a screen-printed electrode (SPE), for the measurement of phenol in transformer oil is reported. Ex-service oils were prepared either by extraction into aqueous electrolyte-buffer, or by direct dilution in propan-2-ol, the latter method being more amenable to simple at-line operation. The oxygen electrode, with a sensitivity of 2.87 nA microg(-1) ml(-1), RSD of 7.0-19.9% and accuracy of +/-8.3% versus the industry standard International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) method, proved superior to the SPE (sensitivity: 3.02 nA microg(-1) ml(-1); RSD: 8.9-18.3%; accuracy: +/-7.9%) and was considerably more accurate at low phenol concentrations. However, the SPE approach is more amenable to field-based usage for reasons of device simplicity. The method has potential as a rapid and simple screening tool for the at-site monitoring of phenol in transformer oils, thereby reducing incidences of transformer failure.