Comparative Pharmacokinetics and Safety Assessment of 1st- and 2nd-Generation Zinpentraxin Alfa Drug Products in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized Crossover Study.

Zinpentraxin alfa is a recombinant form of the human pentraxin-2 that was studied in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). To improve the purity and yield of the drug material, a 2nd-generation drug product was developed. To characterize and compare the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of the 1st- and 2nd-generation zinpentraxin alfa, PK studies were conducted in healthy volunteers (HVs). In a phase 1 randomized, double-blind, 2-sequence crossover, sequential 2-stage study (ISRCTN59409907), single intravenous (IV) doses of 1st- and 2nd-generation zinpentraxin alfa at 10 mg/kg were studied with a blinded interim analysis (IA) at the end of stage 1. Bioequivalence (BE) was achieved for the maximum observed plasma concentration (Cmax), but the overall exposure was higher for the 2nd- compared to the 1st-generation zinpentraxin alfa. The study was stopped after stage 1 as the gating criteria were met based on the result of the blinded IA. Safety profiles were similar for the 1st- and 2nd-generation drug products, and antidrug antibody (ADA) was not observed in this study.

A Phase 1a Study to Evaluate Safety, Tolerability, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of RO7303509, an Anti-TGFß3 Antibody, in Healthy Volunteers.

INTRODUCTION: Transforming growth factor beta (TGFß) cytokines (TGFß1, TGFß2, and TGFß3) play critical roles in tissue fibrosis. However, treatment with systemic pan-TGFß inhibitors have demonstrated unacceptable toxicities. In this study, we evaluated the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of RO7303509, a high-affinity, TGFß3-specific, humanized immunoglobulin G1 monoclonal antibody, in healthy adult volunteers (HVs). METHODS: This phase 1a, randomized, double-blind trial included six cohorts for evaluation, with each cohort receiving single doses of placebo or RO7303509, administered intravenously (IV; 50 mg, 150 mg, 240 mg) or subcutaneously (SC; 240 mg, 675 mg, 1200 mg). The frequency and severity of adverse events (AEs) and RO7303509 serum concentrations were monitored throughout the study. We also measured serum periostin and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) by immunoassay and developed a population pharmacokinetics model to characterize RO7303509 serum concentrations. RESULTS: The study enrolled 49 HVs, with a median age of 39 (range 18-73) years. Ten (27.8%) RO7303509-treated subjects reported 24 AEs, and six (30.8%) placebo-treated subjects reported six AEs. The most frequent AEs related to the study drug were injection site reactions and infusion-related reactions. Maximum serum concentrations (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curve from time 0 to infinity (AUC0-inf) values for RO7303509 appeared to increase dose-proportionally across all doses tested. Serum concentrations across cohorts were best characterized by a two-compartment model plus a depot compartment with first-order SC absorption kinetics. No subjects tested positive for anti-drug antibodies (ADAs) at baseline; one subject (2.8%; 50 mg IV) tested positive for ADAs at a single time point (day 15). No clear pharmacodynamic effects were observed for periostin or COMP upon TGFß3 inhibition. CONCLUSION: RO7303509 was well tolerated at single SC doses up to 1200 mg in HVs with favorable pharmacokinetic data that appeared to increase dose-proportionally. TGFß3-specific inhibition may be suitable for development as a chronic antifibrotic therapy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN13175485.

Applications of Advanced Natural Language Processing for Clinical Pharmacology.

Natural language processing (NLP) is a branch of artificial intelligence, which combines computational linguistics, machine learning, and deep learning models to process human language. Although there is a surge in NLP usage across various industries in recent years, NLP has not been widely evaluated and utilized to support drug development. To demonstrate how advanced NLP can expedite the extraction and analyses of information to help address clinical pharmacology questions, inform clinical trial designs, and support drug development, three use cases are described in this article: (1) dose optimization strategy in oncology, (2) common covariates on pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters in oncology, and (3) physiologically-based PK (PBPK) analyses for regulatory review and product label. The NLP workflow includes (1) preparation of source files, (2) NLP model building, and (3) automation of data extraction. The Clinical Pharmacology and Biopharmaceutics Summary Basis of Approval (SBA) documents, US package inserts (USPI), and approval letters from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) were used as our source data. As demonstrated in the three example use cases, advanced NLP can expedite the extraction and analyses of large amounts of information from regulatory review documents to help address important clinical pharmacology questions. Although this has not been adopted widely, integrating advanced NLP into the clinical pharmacology workflow can increase efficiency in extracting impactful information to advance drug development.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis therapy development: a clinical pharmacology perspective.

Drug development for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) has been challenging due to poorly understood disease etiology, unpredictable disease progression, highly heterogeneous patient populations, and a lack of robust pharmacodynamic biomarkers. Moreover, because lung biopsy is invasive and dangerous, making the extent of fibrosis as a direct longitudinal measurement of IPF disease progression unfeasible, most clinical trials studying IPF can only assess progression of fibrosis indirectly through surrogate measures. This review discusses current state-of-art practices, identifies knowledge gaps, and brainstorms development opportunities for preclinical to clinical translation, clinical populations, pharmacodynamic endpoints, and dose optimization strategies. This article highlights clinical pharmacology perspectives in leveraging real-world data as well as modeling and simulation, special population considerations, and patient-centric approaches for designing future studies.

Modeling Alzheimer's disease progression utilizing clinical trial and ADNI data to predict longitudinal trajectory of CDR-SB.

There is strong interest in developing predictive models to better understand individual heterogeneity and disease progression in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have built upon previous longitudinal AD progression models, using a nonlinear, mixed-effect modeling approach to predict Clinical Dementia Rating Scale - Sum of Boxes (CDR-SB) progression. Data from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (observational study) and placebo arms from four interventional trials (N = 1093) were used for model building. The placebo arms from two additional interventional trials (N = 805) were used for external model validation. In this modeling framework, CDR-SB progression over the disease trajectory timescale was obtained for each participant by estimating disease onset time (DOT). Disease progression following DOT was described by both global progression rate (RATE) and individual progression rate (α). Baseline Mini-Mental State Examination and CDR-SB scores described the interindividual variabilities in DOT and α well. This model successfully predicted outcomes in the external validation datasets, supporting its suitability for prospective prediction and use in design of future trials. By predicting individual participants' disease progression trajectories using baseline characteristics and comparing these against the observed responses to new agents, the model can help assess treatment effects and support decision making for future trials.

Extension of the Alternative Intravenous Dosing Regimens of Atezolizumab into Combination Settings through Modeling and Simulation.

Atezolizumab is approved as an intravenous (IV) infusion for use as a single agent and in combination with other therapies in a number of indications. The objectives of this publication are to characterize atezolizumab pharmacokinetics (PK) across indications with the available clinical data from one phase I and eight phase III studies, to determine the exposure-response (ER) relationships in combination settings across a variety of tumor types, and to provide the clinical safety to support the extension of the 840 mg q2w, 1200 mg q3w, and 1680 mg q4w IV dosing regimens across various indications in combination settings. Across all clinical studies, atezolizumab PK remained in the dose-linear range and were similar across tumor types when used in combination therapy or as a monotherapy. In the combination studies, efficacy was independent of the exposures tested and there was no significant increase in adverse events with increasing atezolizumab exposure (flat ER). The safety profile of atezolizumab in the individual combination studies was generally consistent with the established safety profile of atezolizumab, the combination partners, and the disease under study. The similar atezolizumab PK across monotherapy and combination therapy settings as well as the flat ER in new tumor types and combination therapies support the use of the 3 interchangeable atezolizumab dosing regimens in the combination setting. Atezolizumab is now approved with 3 interchangeable IV dosing regimens of 840 mg q2w, 1200 mg q3w, and 1680 mg q4w for single-agent and combination therapy use in the USA and EU.

Pharmacometric analyses of alectinib to facilitate approval of the optimal dose for the first-line treatment of anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive non-small cell lung cancer.

Alectinib is an anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) inhibitor approved for treatment of ALK-positive non-small cell lung cancer. Population pharmacokinetic (PK) models were developed for alectinib and its major active metabolite M4 using phase I/II PK data in crizotinib-failed patients (N = 138). The PK profiles were best described by two separate models with similar structure for both entities: open one-compartment models with sequential zero/first-order input and first-order elimination rate. Body weight with fixed allometric scaling factor on clearance and volume of both entities was the only significant covariate. Bayesian feedback analyses of the PK data collected from Japanese and global treatment-naïve patients in phase III studies (N = 334) confirmed the body weight effect. Landmark Cox proportional hazards analyses of progression-free survival in treatment-naïve patients identified the average molar concentrations of both entities alectinib and M4 during the first 6 weeks of treatment as a significant covariate, with an optimal response achieved for concentrations above 1040 nmol/L. With 600 mg twice daily (b.i.d.), 92% of global patients are above this threshold concentration, compared with only 43% of patients with 300 mg b.i.d. In Japan, where the body weight distribution is lower, the approved 300 mg b.i.d. dose brings about 70% of Japanese patients above this threshold. Logistic regression analyses found no significant relationship between the combined alectinib-M4 molar concentration and first occurrence of adverse events. These pharmacometric results were used to expedite and facilitate regulatory approvals of 600 mg b.i.d. for first-line ALK-positive NSCLC in the United States and European Union in 2017 and in China in 2018.

Subcutaneous dosing regimens of tocilizumab in children with systemic or polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis.

OBJECTIVES: To determine s.c. tocilizumab (s.c.-TCZ) dosing regimens for systemic JIA (sJIA) and polyarticular JIA (pJIA). METHODS: In two 52-week phase 1 b trials, s.c.-TCZ (162 mg/dose) was administered to sJIA patients every week or every 2 weeks (every 10 days before interim analysis) and to pJIA patients every 2 weeks or every 3 weeks with body weight ≥30 kg or <30 kg, respectively. Primary end points were pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and safety; efficacy was exploratory. Comparisons were made to data from phase 3 trials with i.v. tocilizumab (i.v.-TCZ) in sJIA and pJIA. RESULTS: Study participants were 51 sJIA patients and 52 pJIA patients aged 1-17 years who received s.c.-TCZ. Steady-state minimum TCZ concentration (Ctrough) >5th percentile of that achieved with i.v.-TCZ was achieved by 49 (96%) sJIA and 52 (100%) pJIA patients. In both populations, pharmacodynamic markers of disease were similar between body weight groups. Improvements in Juvenile Arthritis DAS-71 were comparable between s.c.-TCZ and i.v.-TCZ. By week 52, 53% of sJIA patients and 31% of pJIA patients achieved clinical remission on treatment. Safety was consistent with that of i.v.-TCZ except for injection site reactions, reported by 41.2% and 28.8% of sJIA and pJIA patients, respectively. Infections were reported in 78.4% and 69.2% of patients, respectively. Two sJIA patients died; both deaths were considered to be related to TCZ. CONCLUSION: s.c.-TCZ provides exposure and risk/benefit profiles similar to those of i.v.-TCZ. S.c. administration provides an alternative administration route that is more convenient for patients and caregivers and that has potential for in-home use. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, http://clinicaltrials.gov, NCT01904292 and NCT01904279.

Personalized Cancer Vaccines: Clinical Landscape, Challenges, and Opportunities.

Tremendous innovation is underway among a rapidly expanding repertoire of promising personalized immune-based treatments. Therapeutic cancer vaccines (TCVs) are attractive systemic immunotherapies that activate and expand antigen-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells to enhance anti-tumor immunity. Our review highlights key issues impacting TCVs in clinical practice and reports on progress in development. We review the mechanism of action, immune-monitoring, dosing strategies, combinations, obstacles, and regulation of cancer vaccines. Most trials of personalized TCVs are ongoing and represent diverse platforms with predominantly early investigations of mRNA, DNA, or peptide-based targeting strategies against neoantigens in solid tumors, with many in combination immunotherapies. Multiple delivery systems, routes of administration, and dosing strategies are used. Intravenous or intramuscular administration is common, including delivery by lipid nanoparticles. Absorption and biodistribution impact antigen uptake, expression, and presentation, affecting the strength, speed, and duration of immune response. The emerging trials illustrate the complexity of developing this class of innovative immunotherapies. Methodical testing of the multiple potential factors influencing immune responses, as well as refined quantitative methodologies to facilitate optimal dosing strategies, could help resolve uncertainty of therapeutic approaches. To increase the likelihood of success in bringing these medicines to patients, several unique development challenges must be overcome.

Intravenous dosing of tocilizumab in patients younger than two years of age with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis: results from an open-label phase 1 clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The anti-interleukin-6 receptor-alpha antibody tocilizumab was approved for intravenous (IV) injection in the treatment of patients with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA) aged 2 to 17 years based on results of a randomized controlled phase 3 trial. Tocilizumab treatment in systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA) patients younger than 2 was investigated in this open-label phase 1 trial and compared with data from the previous trial in patients aged 2 to 17 years. METHODS: Patients younger than 2 received open-label tocilizumab 12 mg/kg IV every 2 weeks (Q2W) during a 12-week main evaluation period and an optional extension period. The primary end point was comparability of pharmacokinetics during the main evaluation period to that of the previous trial (in patients aged 2-17 years), and the secondary end point was safety; pharmacodynamics and efficacy end points were exploratory. Descriptive comparisons for pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety, and efficacy were made with sJIA patients aged 2 to 17 years weighing < 30 kg (n = 38) who received tocilizumab 12 mg/kg IV Q2W in the previous trial (control group). RESULTS: Eleven patients (mean age, 1.3 years) received tocilizumab during the main evaluation period. The primary end point was met: tocilizumab exposures for patients younger than 2 were within the range of the control group (mean [±SD] µg/mL concentration at the end-of-dosing interval [Cmin]: 39.8 [±14.3] vs 57.5 [±23.3]; maximum concentration [Cmax] postdose: 288 [±40.4] vs 245 [±57.2]). At week 12, pharmacodynamic measures were similar between patients younger than 2 and the control group; mean change from baseline in Juvenile Arthritis Disease Activity Score-71 was - 17.4 in patients younger than 2 and - 28.8 in the control group; rash was reported by 14.3 and 13.5% of patients, respectively. Safety was comparable except for the incidence of serious hypersensitivity reactions (27.3% in patients younger than 2 vs 2.6% in the control group). CONCLUSIONS: Tocilizumab 12 mg/kg IV Q2W provided pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and efficacy in sJIA patients younger than 2 comparable to those in patients aged 2 to 17 years. Safety was comparable except for a higher incidence of serious hypersensitivity events in patients younger than 2 years. CLASSIFICATION: Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01455701 . Registered, October 20, 2011, Date of enrollment of first participant: October 26, 2012.

Exposure-response analysis of alectinib in crizotinib-resistant ALK-positive non-small cell lung cancer.

PURPOSE: Alectinib is a selective and potent anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) inhibitor that is active in the central nervous system (CNS). Alectinib demonstrated robust efficacy in a pooled analysis of two single-arm, open-label phase II studies (NP28673, NCT01801111; NP28761, NCT01871805) in crizotinib-resistant ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC): median overall survival (OS) 29.1 months (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21.3-39.0) for alectinib 600 mg twice daily (BID). We investigated exposure-response relationships from final pooled phase II OS and safety data to assess alectinib dose selection. METHODS: A semi-parametric Cox proportional hazards model analyzed relationships between individual median observed steady-state trough concentrations (Ctrough,ss) for combined exposure of alectinib and its major metabolite (M4), baseline covariates (demographics and disease characteristics) and OS. Univariate logistic regression analysis analyzed relationships between Ctrough,ss and incidence of adverse events (AEs: serious and Grade ≥ 3). RESULTS: Overall, 92% of patients (n = 207/225) had Ctrough,ss data and were included in the analysis. No statistically significant relationship was found between Ctrough,ss and OS following alectinib treatment. The only baseline covariates that statistically influenced OS were baseline tumor size and prior crizotinib treatment duration. Larger baseline tumor size and shorter prior crizotinib treatment were both associated with shorter OS. Logistic regression confirmed no significant relationship between Ctrough,ss and AEs. CONCLUSION: Alectinib 600 mg BID provides systemic exposures at plateau of response for OS while maintaining a well-tolerated safety profile. This analysis confirms alectinib 600 mg BID as the recommended global dose for patients with crizotinib-resistant ALK-positive NSCLC.

Accelerating drug development by efficiently using emerging PK/PD data from an adaptable entry-into-human trial: example of lumretuzumab.

PURPOSE: This study aimed at evaluating if pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data from the first few patients treated with an investigational monoclonal antibody in a dose-escalation study can be used to guide the early initiation of potentially more efficacious combination regimens. METHODS: Emerging pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data from the first nine patients treated with lumretuzumab (a glycoengineered anti-HER3 monoclonal antibody) monotherapy at doses from 100 to 400 mg q2w were used along with a pharmacokinetic model that incorporated target-mediated drug disposition to guide the selection of the starting dose for use in combination regimens. RESULTS: The dose-escalation study investigated lumretuzumab doses up to 2000 mg q2w and a maximum tolerated dose was not reached. However, the model described in this report predicted linear lumretuzumab pharmacokinetics and >95% target saturation at doses ≥400 mg q2w. These data, along with safety data, contributed to the decision to begin dose-escalation studies in combination with cetuximab and erlotinib using a starting dose of 400 mg lumretuzumab. Pharmacokinetic data from patients treated with lumretuzumab 400-2000 mg q2w in combination regimens were consistent with the model predictions. CONCLUSION: PK/PD modelling of emerging clinical data might accelerate development programs by enabling additional parts of a trial to commence before completion of the monotherapy part. The dose and schedule of lumretuzumab were optimised for concomitant therapy at doses substantially below the highest dose investigated.

Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Analysis of Subcutaneous Tocilizumab in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis From 2 Randomized, Controlled Trials: SUMMACTA and BREVACTA.

Tocilizumab is a humanized anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis was performed on the 24-week double-blind parts of 2 randomized, controlled trials: SUMMACTA and BREVACTA. SUMMACTA compared subcutaneous tocilizumab 162 mg every week to intravenous tocilizumab 8 mg/kg every 4 weeks, whereas BREVACTA evaluated 162 mg subcutaneous tocilizumab every 2 weeks versus placebo. In addition to noncompartmental analysis, a 2-compartment population pharmacokinetic model, with first-order absorption (for subcutaneous) and linear and Michaelis-Menten elimination was used. Mean observed steady-state predose tocilizumab concentrations in week 24 were 40 and 7.4 µg/mL for subcutaneous every-week and every-2-week dosing, respectively, and 18 µg/mL for intravenous dosing. In the population PK model, body weight was an important covariate affecting clearance and volume of distribution. Mean ± SD population-predicted predose concentration for patients ≥100 kg was 23.0 ± 13.5 µg/mL for subcutaneous tocilizumab every week and 1.0 ± 1.6 µg/mL for every 2 weeks. Efficacy was lowest with subcutaneous every-2-week dosing in patients > 100 kg, reflecting lower exposure. The subcutaneous every-2-week regimen is not recommended for these patients. Pharmacodynamic responses were comparable for the every-week subcutaneous and every-4-week intravenous regimens and less pronounced with the every-2-week subcutaneous regimen. No trend was observed for increased adverse events with increasing tocilizumab exposure. The results of this analysis are consistent with the noninferiority of efficacy of the every-week subcutaneous regimen to the every-4-week intravenous regimen and the superiority of the every-2-week subcutaneous regimen to placebo. These results support the label recommendations for subcutaneous dosing of tocilizumab in rheumatoid arthritis patients.