A high-precision view of intercompartmental drug transport via simultaneous, seconds-resolved, in situ measurements in the vein and brain.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The ability to measure specific molecules at multiple sites within the body simultaneously, and with a time resolution of seconds, could greatly advance our understanding of drug transport and elimination. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: As a proof-of-principle demonstration, here we describe the use of electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors to measure transport of the antibiotic vancomycin from the plasma (measured in the jugular vein) to the cerebrospinal fluid (measured in the lateral ventricle) of live rats with temporal resolution of a few seconds. KEY RESULTS: In our first efforts, we made measurements solely in the ventricle. Doing so we find that, although the collection of hundreds of concentration values over a single drug lifetime enables high-precision estimates of the parameters describing intracranial transport, due to a mathematical equivalence, the data produce two divergent descriptions of the drug's plasma pharmacokinetics that fit the in-brain observations equally well. The simultaneous collection of intravenous measurements, however, resolves this ambiguity, enabling high-precision (typically of ±5 to ±20% at 95% confidence levels) estimates of the key pharmacokinetic parameters describing transport from the blood to the cerebrospinal fluid in individual animals. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The availability of simultaneous, high-density 'in-vein' (plasma) and 'in-brain' (cerebrospinal fluid) measurements provides unique opportunities to explore the assumptions almost universally employed in earlier compartmental models of drug transport, allowing the quantitative assessment of, for example, the pharmacokinetic effects of physiological processes such as the bulk transport of the drug out of the CNS via the dural venous sinuses.

Harnessing Bioluminescent Bacteria to Develop an Enzymatic-free Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the Detection of Clinically Relevant Biomarkers.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is the gold standard technique for measuring protein biomarkers due to its high sensitivity, specificity, and throughput. Despite its success, continuous advancements in ELISA and immunoassay formats are crucial to meet evolving global challenges and to address new analytical needs in diverse applications. To expand the capabilities and applications of immunoassays, we introduce a novel ELISA-like assay that we call Bioluminescent-bacteria-linked immunosorbent assay (BBLISA). BBLISA is an enzyme-free assay that utilizes the inner filter effect between the bioluminescent bacteriaAllivibrio fischeriand metallic nanoparticles (gold nanoparticles and gold iridium oxide nanoflowers) as molecular absorbers. Functionalizing these nanoparticles with antibodies induces their accumulation in wells upon binding to molecular targets, forming the classical immune-sandwich complex. Thanks to their ability to adsorb the light emitted by the bacteria, the nanoparticles can suppress the bioluminescence signal, allowing the rapid quantification of the target. To demonstrate the bioanalytical properties of the novel immunoassay platform, as a proof of principle, we detected two clinically relevant biomarkers (human immunoglobulin G and SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein) in human serum, achieving the same sensitivity and precision as the classic ELISA. We believe that BBLISA can be a promising alternative to the standard ELISA techniques, offering potential advancements in biomarker detection and analysis by combining nanomaterials with a low-cost, portable bioluminescent platform.

PAM-Engineered Toehold Switches as Input-Responsive Activators of CRISPR-Cas12a for Sensing Applications.

The RNA-programmed CRISPR effector protein Cas12a has emerged as a powerful tool for gene editing and molecular diagnostics. However, additional bio-engineering strategies are required to achieve control over Cas12a activity. Here, we show that Toehold Switch DNA hairpins, presenting a rationally designed locked protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) in the loop, can be used to control Cas12a in response to molecular inputs. Reconfiguring the Toehold Switch DNA from a hairpin to a duplex conformation through a strand displacement reaction provides an effective means to modulate the accessibility of the PAM, thereby controlling the binding and cleavage activities of Cas12a. Through this approach, we showcase the potential to trigger downstream Cas12a activity by leveraging proximity-based strand displacement reactions in response to target binding. By utilizing the trans-cleavage activity of Cas12a as a signal transduction method, we demonstrate the versatility of our approach for sensing applications. Our system enables rapid, one-pot detection of IgG antibodies and small molecules with high sensitivity and specificity even within complex matrices. Besides the bioanalytical applications, the switchable PAM-engineered Toehold Switches serve as programmable tools capable of regulating Cas12a-based targeting and DNA processing in response to molecular inputs and hold promise for a wide array of biotechnological applications.

One-Step Laser Nanostructuration of Reduced Graphene Oxide Films Embedding Metal Nanoparticles for Sensing Applications.

The combination of two-dimensional materials and metal nanoparticles (MNPs) allows the fabrication of novel nanocomposites with unique physical/chemical properties exploitable in high-performance smart devices and biosensing strategies. Current methods to obtain graphene-based films decorated with noble MNPs are cumbersome, poorly reproducible, and difficult to scale up. Herein, we propose a straightforward, versatile, surfactant-free, and single-step technique to produce reduced graphene oxide (rGO) conductive films integrating "naked" noble MNPs. This method relies on the instantaneous laser-induced co-reduction of graphene oxide and metal cations, resulting in highly exfoliated rGO nanosheets embedding gold, silver, and platinum NPs. The production procedure has been optimized, and the obtained nanomaterials are fully characterized; the hybrid nanosheets have been easily transferred onto lab-made screen-printed electrodes preserving their nanoarchitecture. The Au@rGO-, Ag@rGO-, and Pt@rGO-based electrodes have been challenged to detect caffeic acid, nitrite, and hydrogen peroxide in model solutions and real samples. The sensors yielded quantitative responses (R2 ≥ 0.997) with sub-micromolar limits of detections (LODs ≤ 0.6 µM) for all the analytes, allowing accurate quantification in samples (recoveries ≥ 90%; RSD ≤ 14.8%, n = 3). This single-step protocol which requires low cost and minimal equipment will allow the fabrication of free-standing, MNP-embedded rGO films integrable into a variety of scalable smart devices and biosensors.

Thermo-Programmed Synthetic DNA-Based Receptors.

Herein, we present a generalizable and versatile strategy to engineer synthetic DNA ligand-binding devices that can be programmed to load and release a specific ligand at a defined temperature. We do so by re-engineering two model DNA-based receptors: a triplex-forming bivalent DNA-based receptor that recognizes a specific DNA sequence and an ATP-binding aptamer. The temperature at which these receptors load/release their ligands can be finely modulated by controlling the entropy associated with the linker connecting the two ligand-binding domains. The availability of a set of receptors with tunable and reversible temperature dependence allows achieving complex load/release behavior such as sustained ligand release over a wide temperature range. Similar programmable thermo-responsive synthetic ligand-binding devices can be of utility in applications such as drug delivery and production of smart materials.

Conformational-switch biosensors as novel tools to support continuous, real-time molecular monitoring in lab-on-a-chip devices.

Recent years have seen continued expansion of the functionality of lab on a chip (LOC) devices. Indeed LOCs now provide scientists and developers with useful and versatile platforms across a myriad of chemical and biological applications. The field still fails, however, to integrate an often important element of bench-top analytics: real-time molecular measurements that can be used to "guide" a chemical response. Here we describe the analytical techniques that could provide LOCs with such real-time molecular monitoring capabilities. It appears to us that, among the approaches that are general (i.e., that are independent of the reactive or optical properties of their targets), sensing strategies relying on binding-induced conformational change of bioreceptors are most likely to succeed in such applications.

The sequestration mechanism as a generalizable approach to improve the sensitivity of biosensors and bioassays.

Biosensors and bioassays, both of which employ proteins and nucleic acids to detect specific molecular targets, have seen significant applications in both biomedical research and clinical practice. This success is largely due to the extraordinary versatility, affinity, and specificity of biomolecular recognition. Nevertheless, these receptors suffer from an inherent limitation: single, saturable binding sites exhibit a hyperbolic relationship (the "Langmuir isotherm") between target concentration and receptor occupancy, which in turn limits the sensitivity of these technologies to small variations in target concentration. To overcome this and generate more responsive biosensors and bioassays, here we have used the sequestration mechanism to improve the steepness of the input/output curves of several bioanalytical methods. As our test bed for this we employed sensors and assays against neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), a kidney biomarker for which enhanced sensitivity will improve the monitoring of kidney injury. Specifically, by introducing sequestration we have improved the responsiveness of an electrochemical aptamer based (EAB) biosensor, and two bioassays, a paper-based "dipstick" assay and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Doing so we have narrowed the dynamic range of these sensors and assays several-fold, thus enhancing their ability to measure small changes in target concentration. Given that introducing sequestration requires only the addition of the appropriate concentration of a high-affinity "depletant," the mechanism appears simple and easily adaptable to tuning the binding properties of the receptors employed in a wide range of biosensors and bioassays.

Selection and characterisation of bioreceptors to develop nanoparticle-based lateral-flow immunoassays in the context of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak.

This manuscript aims at raising the attention of the scientific community to the need for better characterised bioreceptors for fast development of point-of-care diagnostic devices able to support mass frequency testing. Particularly, we present the difficulties encountered in finding suitable antibodies for the development of a lateral flow assay for detecting the nucleoprotein of SARS-CoV-2.

Continuous monitoring of molecular biomarkers in microfluidic devices.

The ability to monitor molecular targets is crucial in fields ranging from healthcare to industrial processing to environmental protection. Devices employing biomolecules to achieve this goal are called biosensors. Over the last half century researchers have developed dozens of different biosensor approaches. In this chapter we analyze recent advances in the biosensing field aiming at adapting these to the problem of continuous molecular monitoring in complex sample streams, and how the merging of these sensors with lab-on-a-chip technologies would be beneficial to both. To do so we discuss (1) the components that comprise a biosensor, (2) the challenges associated with continuous molecular monitoring in complex sample streams, (3) how different sensing strategies deal with (or fail to deal with) these challenges, and (4) the implementation of these technologies into lab-on-a-chip architectures.

Low-Cost, User-Friendly, All-Integrated Smartphone-Based Microplate Reader for Optical-Based Biological and Chemical Analyses.

The quantitative detection of different molecular targets is of utmost importance for a variety of human activities, ranging from healthcare to environmental studies. Bioanalytical methods have been developed to solve this and to achieve the quantification of multiple targets from small volume samples. Generally, they can be divided into two different classes: point of care (PoC) and laboratory-based approaches. The former is rapid, low-cost, and user-friendly; however, the majority of the tests are semiquantitative, lacking in specificity and sensitivity. On the contrary, laboratory-based approaches provide high sensitivity and specificity, but the bulkiness of experimental instruments and complicated protocols hamper their use in resource-limited settings. In response, here we propose a smartphone-based device able to support laboratory-based optical techniques directly at the point of care. Specifically, we designed and fabricated a portable microplate reader that supports colorimetric, fluorescence, luminescence, and turbidity analyses. To demonstrate the potential of the device, we characterized its analytical performance by detecting a variety of relevant molecular targets (ranging from antibodies, toxins, drugs, and classic fluorophore dyes) and we showed how the estimated results are comparable to those obtained from a commercial microplate reader. Thanks to its low cost (<$300), portability (27 cm [length] × 18 cm [width] × 7 cm [height]), commercially available components, and open-source-based system, we believe it represents a valid approach to bring high-precision laboratory-based analysis at the point of care.

Nanodiagnostics to Face SARS-CoV-2 and Future Pandemics: From an Idea to the Market and Beyond.

The COVID-19 pandemic made clear how our society requires quickly available tools to address emerging healthcare issues. Diagnostic assays and devices are used every day to screen for COVID-19 positive patients, with the aim to decide the appropriate treatment and containment measures. In this context, we would have expected to see the use of the most recent diagnostic technologies worldwide, including the advanced ones such as nano-biosensors capable to provide faster, more sensitive, cheaper, and high-throughput results than the standard polymerase chain reaction and lateral flow assays. Here we discuss why that has not been the case and why all the exciting diagnostic strategies published on a daily basis in peer-reviewed journals are not yet successful in reaching the market and being implemented in the clinical practice.

Rapid and Efficient Detection of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Using an Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensor.

The availability of sensors able to rapidly detect SARS-CoV-2 directly in biological fluids in a single step would allow performing massive diagnostic testing to track in real time and contain the spread of COVID-19. Motivated by this, here, we developed an electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensor able to achieve the rapid, reagentless, and quantitative measurement of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein. First, we demonstrated the ability of the selected aptamer to undergo a binding-induced conformational change in the presence of its target using fluorescence spectroscopy. Then, we engineered the aptamer to work as a bioreceptor in the EAB platform and we demonstrated its sensitivity and specificity. Finally, to demonstrate the clinical potential of the sensor, we tested it directly in biological fluids (serum and artificial saliva), achieving the rapid (minutes) and single-step detection of the S protein in its clinical range.

Seconds-Resolved, In Situ Measurements of Plasma Phenylalanine Disposition Kinetics in Living Rats.

Current knowledge of the disposition kinetics of endogenous metabolites is founded almost entirely on poorly time-resolved experiments in which samples are removed from the body for later, benchtop analysis. Here, in contrast, we describe real-time, seconds-resolved measurements of plasma phenylalanine collected in situ in the body via electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors, a platform technology that is independent of the reactivity of its targets and thus is generalizable to many. Specifically, using indwelling EAB sensors, we have monitored plasma phenylalanine in live rats with a few micromolar precision and a 12 s temporal resolution, identifying a large-amplitude, few-seconds phase in the animals' metabolic response that had not previously been reported. Using the hundreds of individual measurements that the approach provides from each animal, we also identify inter-subject variability, including statistically significant differences associated with the feeding status. These results highlight the power of in vivo EAB measurements, an advancement that could dramatically impact our understanding of physiology and provide a valuable new tool for the monitoring and treatment of metabolic disorders.

Protein-Controlled Actuation of Dynamic Nucleic Acid Networks by Using Synthetic DNA Translators*.

Integrating dynamic DNA nanotechnology with protein-controlled actuation will expand our ability to process molecular information. We have developed a strategy to actuate strand displacement reactions using DNA-binding proteins by engineering synthetic DNA translators that convert specific protein-binding events into trigger inputs through a programmed conformational change. We have constructed synthetic DNA networks responsive to two different DNA-binding proteins, TATA-binding protein and Myc-Max, and demonstrated multi-input activation of strand displacement reactions. We achieved protein-controlled regulation of a synthetic RNA and of an enzyme through artificial DNA-based communication, showing the potential of our molecular system in performing further programmable tasks.

Real-Time Monitoring of a Protein Biomarker.

The ability to monitor protein biomarkers continuously and in real-time would significantly advance the precision of medicine. Current protein-detection techniques, however, including ELISA and lateral flow assays, provide only time-delayed, single-time-point measurements, limiting their ability to guide prompt responses to rapidly evolving, life-threatening conditions. In response, here we present an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor (EAB) that supports high-frequency, real-time biomarker measurements. Specifically, we have developed an electrochemical, aptamer-based (EAB) sensor against Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NGAL), a protein that, if present in urine at levels above a threshold value, is indicative of acute renal/kidney injury (AKI). When deployed inside a urinary catheter, the resulting reagentless, wash-free sensor supports real-time, high-frequency monitoring of clinically relevant NGAL concentrations over the course of hours. By providing an "early warning system", the ability to measure levels of diagnostically relevant proteins such as NGAL in real-time could fundamentally change how we detect, monitor, and treat many important diseases.

Programmable Bivalent Peptide-DNA Locks for pH-Based Control of Antibody Activity.

The ability to control antibody activity by pH has important applications in diagnostics, therapeutic antibody targeting, and antibody-guided imaging. Here, we report the rational design of bivalent peptide-DNA ligands that allow pH-dependent control of antibody activity. Our strategy uses a pH-responsive DNA triple helix to control switching from a tight-binding bivalent peptide-DNA lock into a weaker-binding monovalent ligand. Different designs are introduced that allow antibody activation at both basic and acidic pHs, either autonomously or in the presence of an additional oligonucleotide trigger. The pH of antibody activation could be precisely tuned by changing the DNA triple helix sequence. The peptide-DNA locks allowed pH-dependent antibody targeting of tumor cells both in bulk and for single cells confined in water-in-oil microdroplets. The latter approach enables high-throughput antibody-mediated detection of single tumor cells based on their distinctive metabolic activity.

Calibration-Free Measurement of Phenylalanine Levels in the Blood Using an Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensor Suitable for Point-of-Care Applications.

By analogy to the revolution the "home glucose monitor" created in the treatment of diabetes, the availability of a modular, "platform" technology able to measure nearly any metabolite, biomarker, or drug "at-home" in unprocessed, finger-prick volumes of whole blood could revolutionize the monitoring and treatment of disease. Thus motivated, we have adapted here the electrochemical aptamer-based sensing platform to the problem of rapidly and conveniently measuring the level of phenylalanine in the blood, an ability that would aid the monitoring and management of phenylketonuria (PKU). To achieve this, we exploited a previously reported DNA aptamer that recognizes phenylalanine in complex with a rhodium-based "receptor" that improves affinity. We re-engineered this to undergo a large-scale, binding-induced conformational change before modifying it with a methylene blue redox reporter and attaching it to a gold electrode that supports the appropriate electrochemical interrogation. The resultant sensor achieves a useful dynamic range of 90 nM to 7 µM. When challenged with finger-prick-scale sample volumes of the whole blood (diluted 1000-fold to match the sensor's dynamic range), the device achieves the accurate (±20%), calibration-free measurement of blood phenylalanine levels in minutes.

Seconds-resolved pharmacokinetic measurements of the chemotherapeutic irinotecan in situ in the living body.

The ability to measure drugs in the body rapidly and in real time would advance both our understanding of pharmacokinetics and our ability to optimally dose and deliver pharmacological therapies. To this end, we are developing electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors, a seconds-resolved platform technology that, as critical for performing measurements in vivo, is reagentless, reversible, and selective enough to work when placed directly in bodily fluids. Here we describe the development of an E-AB sensor against irinotecan, a member of the camptothecin family of cancer chemotherapeutics, and its adaptation to in vivo sensing. To achieve this we first re-engineered (via truncation) a previously reported DNA aptamer against the camptothecins to support high-gain E-AB signaling. We then co-deposited the modified aptamer with an unstructured, redox-reporter-modified DNA sequence whose output was independent of target concentration, rendering the sensor's signal gain a sufficiently strong function of square-wave frequency to support kinetic-differential-measurement drift correction. The resultant, 200 µm-diameter, 3 mm-long sensor achieves 20 s-resolved, multi-hour measurements of plasma irinotecan when emplaced in the jugular veins of live rats, thus providing an unprecedentedly high-precision view into the pharmacokinetics of this class of chemotherapeutics.

Entropy-Based Rational Modulation of the pKa of a Synthetic pH-Dependent Nanoswitch.

The rational regulation of the pKa of an ionizable group in a synthetic device could be achieved by controlling the entropy of the linker connecting the hydrogen bond forming domains. We demonstrate this by designing a set of pH-responsive synthetic DNA-based nanoswitches that share the same hydrogen bond forming domains but differ in the length of the linker. The observed acidic constant (pKa) of these pH-dependent nanoswitches is linearly dependent on the entropic cost associated with loop formation and is gradually shifted to more basic pH values when the length of the linker domain is reduced. Through mathematical modeling and thermodynamic characterization we demonstrate that the modulation of the observed pKa is due to a purely entropic contribution. This approach represents a very versatile strategy to rationally modulate the pKa of synthetic devices in a highly predictable and accurate way.

Programmable RNA-based systems for sensing and diagnostic applications.

The emerging field of RNA nanotechnology harnesses the versatility of RNA molecules to generate nature-inspired systems with programmable structure and functionality. Such methodology has therefore gained appeal in the fields of biosensing and diagnostics, where specific molecular recognition and advanced input/output processing are demanded. The use of RNA modules and components allows for achieving diversity in structure and function, for processing information with molecular precision, and for programming dynamic operations on the grounds of predictable non-covalent interactions. When RNA nanotechnology meets bioanalytical chemistry, sensing of target molecules can be performed by harnessing programmable interactions of RNA modules, advanced field-ready biosensors can be manufactured by interfacing RNA-based devices with supporting portable platforms, and RNA sensors can be engineered to be genetically encoded allowing for real-time imaging of biomolecules in living cells. In this article, we report recent advances in RNA-based sensing technologies and discuss current trends in RNA nanotechnology-enabled biomedical diagnostics. In particular, we describe programmable sensors that leverage modular designs comprising dynamic aptamer-based units, synthetic RNA nanodevices able to perform target-responsive regulation of gene expression, and paper-based sensors incorporating artificial RNA networks. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.