Making Drosophila lineage-restricted drivers via patterned recombination in neuroblasts.

The Drosophila cerebrum originates from about 100 neuroblasts per hemisphere, with each neuroblast producing a characteristic set of neurons. Neurons from a neuroblast are often so diverse that many neuron types remain unexplored. We developed new genetic tools that target neuroblasts and their diverse descendants, increasing our ability to study fly brain structure and development. Common enhancer-based drivers label neurons on the basis of terminal identities rather than origins, which provides limited labeling in the heterogeneous neuronal lineages. We successfully converted conventional drivers that are temporarily expressed in neuroblasts, into drivers expressed in all subsequent neuroblast progeny. One technique involves immortalizing GAL4 expression in neuroblasts and their descendants. Another depends on loss of the GAL4 repressor, GAL80, from neuroblasts during early neurogenesis. Furthermore, we expanded the diversity of MARCM-based reagents and established another site-specific mitotic recombination system. Our transgenic tools can be combined to map individual neurons in specific lineages of various genotypes.

Neurturin overexpression in skin enhances expression of TRPM8 in cutaneous sensory neurons and leads to behavioral sensitivity to cool and menthol.

Neurturin (NRTN) is a member of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor family of ligands that exerts its actions via Ret tyrosine kinase and GFRα2. Expression of the Ret-GFRα2 coreceptor complex is primarily restricted to the peripheral nervous system and is selectively expressed by sensory neurons that bind the isolectin B(4) (IB(4)). To determine how target-derived NRTN affects sensory neuron properties, transgenic mice that overexpress NRTN in keratinocytes (NRTN-OE mice) were analyzed. Overexpression of NRTN increased the density of PGP9.5-positive, but not calcitonin gene-related peptide-positive, free nerve endings in footpad epidermis. GFRα2-immunopositive somata were hypertrophied in NRTN-OE mice. Electron microscopic analysis further revealed hypertrophy of unmyelinated sensory axons and a subset of myelinated axons. Overexpression of NRTN increased the relative level of mRNAs encoding GFRα2 and Ret, the ATP receptor P2X(3) (found in IB(4)-positive, GFRα2-expressing sensory neurons), the acid-sensing ion channel 2a, and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily member M8 (TRPM8) in sensory ganglia. Behavioral testing of NRTN-OE mice revealed an increased sensitivity to mechanical stimuli in glabrous skin of the hindpaw. NRTN-OE mice also displayed increased behavioral sensitivity to cool temperature (17°C-20°C) and oral sensitivity to menthol. The increase in cool and menthol sensitivity correlated with a significant increase in TRPM8 expression and the percentage of menthol-responsive cutaneous sensory neurons. These data indicate that the expression level of NRTN in the skin modulates gene expression in cutaneous sensory afferents and behavioral sensitivity to thermal, chemical, and mechanical stimuli.

Sox11 modulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in an exon promoter-specific manner.

Sox11 is a high-mobility group (HMG)-containing transcription factor that is significantly elevated in peripheral neurons in response to nerve injury. In vitro and in vivo studies support a central role for Sox11 in adult neuron growth and survival following injury. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a pleiotropic growth factor that has effects on neuronal survival, differentiation, synaptic plasticity, and regeneration. BDNF transcription is elevated in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) following nerve injury in parallel with Sox11, allowing for the possible regulation by Sox11. To begin to assess the possible influence of Sox11, we used reverse transcriptase PCR assays to determine the relative expression of the nine (I-IXa) noncoding exons and one coding exon (exon IX) of the BDNF gene after sciatic nerve axotomy in the mouse. Exons with upstream promoter regions containing the Sox binding motif 5'-AACAAAG-3' (I, IV, VII, and VIII) were increased at 1 or 3 days following axotomy. Exons 1 and IV showed the greatest increase, and only exon 1 remained elevated at 3 days. Luciferase assays showed that Sox11 could activate the most highly regulated exons, I and IV, and that this activation was reduced by mutation of putative Sox binding sites. Exon expression in injured DRG neurons had some overlap with Neuro2a cells that overexpress Sox11, showing elevation in exon IV and VII transcripts. These findings indicate cell type and contextual specificity of Sox11 in modulation of BDNF transcription.

The transcription factor Sox11 promotes nerve regeneration through activation of the regeneration-associated gene Sprr1a.

Factors that enhance the intrinsic growth potential of adult neurons are key players in the successful repair and regeneration of neurons following injury. Injury-induced activation of transcription factors has a central role in this process because they regulate expression of regeneration-associated genes. Sox11 is a developmentally expressed transcription factor that is significantly induced in adult neurons in response to injury. Its function in injured neurons is however undefined. Here, we report studies that use herpes simplex virus (HSV)-vector-mediated expression of Sox11 in adult sensory neurons to assess the effect of Sox11 overexpression on neuron regeneration. Cultured mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons transfected with HSV-Sox11 exhibited increased neurite elongation and branching relative to naïve and HSV-vector control treated neurons. Neurons from mice injected in foot skin with HSV-Sox11 exhibited accelerated regeneration of crushed saphenous nerves as indicated by faster regrowth of axons and nerve fibers to the skin, increased myelin thickness and faster return of nerve and skin sensitivity. Downstream targets of HSV-Sox11 were examined by analyzing changes in gene expression of known regeneration-associated genes. This analysis in combination with mutational and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays indicates that the ability of Sox11 to accelerate in vivo nerve regeneration is dependent on its transcriptional activation of the regeneration-associated gene, small proline rich protein 1a (Sprr1a). This finding reveals a new functional linkage between Sox11 and Sprr1a in adult peripheral neuron regeneration.

Phenotypic switching of nonpeptidergic cutaneous sensory neurons following peripheral nerve injury.

In adult mammals, the phenotype of half of all pain-sensing (nociceptive) sensory neurons is tonically modulated by growth factors in the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family that includes GDNF, artemin (ARTN) and neurturin (NRTN). Each family member binds a distinct GFRα family co-receptor, such that GDNF, NRTN and ARTN bind GFRα1, -α2, and -α3, respectively. Previous studies revealed transcriptional regulation of all three receptors in following axotomy, possibly in response to changes in growth factor availability. Here, we examined changes in the expression of GFRα1-3 in response to injury in vivo and in vitro. We found that after dissociation of adult sensory ganglia, up to 27% of neurons die within 4 days (d) in culture and this can be prevented by nerve growth factor (NGF), GDNF and ARTN, but not NRTN. Moreover, up-regulation of ATF3 (a marker of neuronal injury) in vitro could be prevented by NGF and ARTN, but not by GDNF or NRTN. The lack of NRTN efficacy was correlated with rapid and near-complete loss of GFRα2 immunoreactivity. By retrogradely-labeling cutaneous afferents in vivo prior to nerve cut, we demonstrated that GFRα2-positive neurons switch phenotype following injury and begin to express GFRα3 as well as the capsaicin receptor, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1(TRPV1), an important transducer of noxious stimuli. This switch was correlated with down-regulation of Runt-related transcription factor 1 (Runx1), a transcription factor that controls expression of GFRα2 and TRPV1 during development. These studies show that NRTN-responsive neurons are unique with respect to their plasticity and response to injury, and suggest that Runx1 plays an ongoing modulatory role in the adult.

Zebrafish ale oko, an essential determinant of sensory neuron survival and the polarity of retinal radial glia, encodes the p50 subunit of dynactin.

Although microtubule-dependent motors are known to play many essential functions in eukaryotic cells, their role in the context of the developing vertebrate embryo is less well understood. Here we show that the zebrafish ale oko (ako) locus encodes the p50 component of the dynactin complex. Loss of ako function results in a degeneration of photoreceptors and mechanosensory hair cells. Additionally, mutant Müller cells lose apical processes and their perikarya translocate rapidly towards the vitreal surface of the retina. This is accompanied by the accumulation of the apical determinants Nok and Has/aPKC in their cell bodies. ako is required cell-autonomously for the maintenance of the apical process but not for cell body positioning in Müller glia. At later stages, the retinotectal projection also degenerates in ako mutants. These results indicate that the p50 component of the dynactin complex is essential for the survival of sensory neurons and the maintenance of ganglion cell axons, and functions as a major determinant of apicobasal polarity in retinal radial glia.

DIXDC1 co-localizes and interacts with gamma-tubulin in HEK293 cells.

DIXDC1 is a Dishevelled-Axin (DIX) domain-containing protein involved in neural development and Wnt signaling pathway. Besides the DIX domain, DIXDC1 also contains a coiled-coil domain (MTH domain), which is a common feature of centrosomal proteins. We have demonstrated that exogenously expressed GFP-tag fused DIXDC1 co-localize with gamma-tubulin both at interphase and mitotic phase in HEK293 cells. By immunostaining with anti-DIXDC1 and anti-gamma-tubulin antibody, endogenous DIXDC1 was also co-localized with gamma-tubulin at the centrosomes in HEK293 cells. We confirmed this interaction of DIXDC1 with gamma-tubulin by co-immunoprecipitation. The findings suggest that DIXDC1 might play an important role in chromosome segregation and cell cycle regulation.

Sox11 transcription factor modulates peripheral nerve regeneration in adult mice.

The ability of adult peripheral sensory neurons to undergo functional and anatomical recovery following nerve injury is due in part to successful activation of transcriptional regulatory pathways. Previous in vitro evidence had suggested that the transcription factor Sox11, a HMG-domain containing protein that is highly expressed in developing sensory neurons, is an important component of this regenerative transcriptional control program. To further test the role of Sox11 in an in vivo system, we developed a new approach to specifically target small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) conjugated to the membrane permeable molecule Penetratin to injured sensory afferents. Injection of Sox11 siRNAs into the mouse saphenous nerve caused a transient knockdown of Sox11 mRNA that transiently inhibited in vivo regeneration. Electron microscopic level analysis of Sox11 RNAi-injected nerves showed that regeneration of myelinated and unmyelinated axons was inhibited. Nearly all neurons in ganglia of crushed nerves that were Sox11 immunopositive showed colabeling for the stress and injury-associated activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3). In addition, treatment with Sox11 siRNAs in vitro and in vivo caused a transcriptional and translational level reduction in ATF3 expression. These anatomical and expression data support an intrinsic role for Sox11 in events that underlie successful regeneration following peripheral nerve injury.

DIXDC1 promotes retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation and inhibits gliogenesis in P19 cells.

Human DIXDC1 is a member of Dishevelled-Axin (DIX) domain containing gene family which plays important roles in Wnt signaling and neural development. In this report, we first confirmed that expression of Ccd1, a mouse homologous gene of DIXDC1, was up-regulated in embryonic developing nervous system. Further studies showed that Ccd1 was expressed specifically in neurons and colocalized with early neuronal marker Tuj1. During the aggregation induced by RA and neuronal differentiation of embryonic carcinoma P19 cells, expressions of Ccd1 as well as Wnt-1 and N-cadherin were dramatically increased. Stable overexpression of DIXDC1 in P19 cells promoted the neuronal differentiation. P19 cells overexpressing DIXDC1 but not the control P19 cells could differentiate into Tuj1 positive cells with RA induction for only 2 days. Meanwhile, we also found that overexpression of DIXDC1 facilitated the expression of Wnt1 and bHLHs during aggregation and differentiation, respectively, while inhibited gliogenesis by down-regulating the expression of GFAP in P19 cells. Thus, our finding suggested that DIXDC1 might play an important role during neurogenesis, overexpression of DIXDC1 in embryonic carcinoma P19 cells promoted neuronal differentiation, and inhibited gliogenesis induced by retinoic acid.

[Expression, purification and polyclonal antibody preparation of GST-Ccd1 fusion protein].

AIM: By using of Escherichia coli DH5alpha to express GST-Ccd1 fusion protein and which was purified by affinity chromatographic separation. The purified target protein was used to immunize rabbits to prepare polyclonal antibody. METHODS: The previously constructed recombinant prokaryotic expression vector pGEX-5X-1-Ccd1 was transformed into Escherichia coli DH5alpha and was induced to expression by IPTG. The recombinant target protein was expressed with soluble state in Escherichia coli expression system which was separated and purified by chromatographic column stuffed with glutathione Sepharose 4B. The prepared antigen was used to immunize rabbits to get anti-Ccd1 specific rabbit original polyclonal antibody. RESULTS: ELISA data demonstrated that the antibody titer of the serum was up to 1:40 000. Immunohistochemistry analysis indicated that the "home-made" antibody had a specific interaction with Ccd1 protein and which could be used for extended experimental research. CONCLUSION: The anti-Ccd1 polyclonal antibody we had prepared had a high quality of potency and specificity. The antibody was demonstrated by experiments that which could totally fulfill the requirement of immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry study of Ccd1. The antibody provided an useful experimental tool to profoundly research the tissue expression profile, intercellular location and biological function of Ccd1.