Italian validation of the body odor disgust scale.

Introduction: Disgust sensitivity to body odors plays a role in a set of psychological mechanisms supposedly evolved to avoid pathogens. To assess individual differences in body odor disgust, we previously developed the body odor disgust scale (BODS) and validated it in English. The BODS presents six scenarios where disgust could be evoked by smells coming from an internal source and an external source. The present study aimed to validate the BODS in the Italian population and to find further evidence for its structural, construct, and criterion validity. Methods: We used two large samples (N = 1,050, F = 527; and N = 402, F = 203, respectively) that were representative of the Italian population for sex and age. Results: Across these two studies, we confirmed the hypothesized bifactor structure, with all the items loading onto a general body odor disgust sensitivity factor, and on two specific factors related to the internal structure. In terms of construct validity, we found that the BODS converged with pathogen disgust sensitivity of the three-domain disgust scale (TDDS) but was distinct from a general propensity to experience negative emotions. The BODS showed criterion validity in predicting the behavioral intentions toward COVID-19 avoidance behavior, although it did not seem to be incrementally valid when compared to the TDDS pathogen subscale. We also established scalar measurement invariance of the BODS regarding gender and found that women display higher levels of BODS. Discussion: Results from the Italian version of the BODS indicate its structural, construct, nomological and criterion validity. Furthermore, our result on sex differences in disgust sensitivity are consistent with previous literature, and we discuss them in the broader context of cross-cultural and primate findings that points toward a possible evolutionary explanation of this difference.

High prevalence of long-term olfactory disorders in healthcare workers after COVID-19: A case-control study.

BACKGROUND: More than a year after recovering from COVID-19, a large proportion of individuals, many of whom work in the healthcare sector, still report olfactory dysfunctions. However, olfactory dysfunction was common already before the COVID-19 pandemic, making it necessary to also consider the existing baseline prevalence of olfactory dysfunction. To establish the adjusted prevalence of COVID-19 related olfactory dysfunction, we assessed smell function in healthcare workers who had contracted COVID-19 during the first wave of the pandemic using psychophysical testing. METHODS: Participants were continuously tested for SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies since the beginning of the pandemic. To assess the baseline rate of olfactory dysfunction in the population and to control for the possibility of skewed recruitment of individuals with prior olfactory dysfunction, consistent SARS-CoV-2 IgG naïve individuals were tested as a control group. RESULTS: Fifteen months after contracting COVID-19, 37% of healthcare workers demonstrated a quantitative reduction in their sense of smell, compared to only 20% of the individuals in the control group. Fifty-one percent of COVID-19-recovered individuals reported qualitative symptoms, compared to only 5% in the control group. In a follow-up study 2.6 years after COVID-19 diagnosis, 24% of all tested recovered individuals still experienced parosmia. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, 65% of healthcare workers experienced parosmia/hyposmia 15 months after contracting COVID-19. When compared to a control group, the prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in the population increased by 41 percentage points. Parosmia symptoms were still lingering two-and-a half years later in 24% of SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals. Given the amount of time between infection and testing, it is possible that the olfactory problems may not be fully reversible in a plurality of individuals.

Hemiplegic (unilateral) cerebral palsy in northern Stockholm: Intellectual disability and epilepsy.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to describe intellectual disability and its association with epilepsy and brain imaging, in a population-based group of children with hemiplegic (unilateral) cerebral palsy, previously investigated and published in 2020. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-seven children of school age in northern Stockholm, fulfilling the Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe-criteria of hemiplegic (unilateral spastic) cerebral palsy, were invited to participate in the study. Twenty-one children consented to participate. A WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)-test was performed by an experienced psychologist. RESULTS: In the study population of twenty-one children, 57 % (n 12) displayed uneven cognitive profiles, 38 % (n 8) intellectual disability and 62 % (n 13) had a normal IQ. 43 % (n 9) developed epilepsy. Children with extensive brain lesions had more severe intellectual disability. CONCLUSIONS: In this study intellectual disability and/or epilepsy were associated with the type and extent of the underlying brain lesion. Intellectual disability and uneven cognitive profiles were common. We therefore recommend individual cognitive assessment to ensure an optimal school start.

Early aerial expedition photos reveal 85 years of glacier growth and stability in East Antarctica.

During the last few decades, several sectors in Antarctica have transitioned from glacial mass balance equilibrium to mass loss. In order to determine if recent trends exceed the scale of natural variability, long-term observations are vital. Here we explore the earliest, large-scale, aerial image archive of Antarctica to provide a unique record of 21 outlet glaciers along the coastline of East Antarctica since the 1930s. In Lützow-Holm Bay, our results reveal constant ice surface elevations since the 1930s, and indications of a weakening of local land-fast sea-ice conditions. Along the coastline of Kemp and Mac Robertson, and Ingrid Christensen Coast, we observe a long-term moderate thickening of the glaciers since 1937 and 1960 with periodic thinning and decadal variability. In all regions, the long-term changes in ice thickness correspond with the trends in snowfall since 1940. Our results demonstrate that the stability and growth in ice elevations observed in terrestrial basins over the past few decades are part of a trend spanning at least a century, and highlight the importance of understanding long-term changes when interpreting current dynamics.

Effect of artificial or autologous coverage of the pancreatic remnant or anastomosis on postoperative pancreatic fistulas after partial pancreatectomy: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative pancreatic fistulas remain a driver of major complications after partial pancreatectomy. It is unclear whether coverage of the anastomosis or pancreatic remnant can reduce the incidence of postoperative pancreatic fistulas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of autologous or artificial coverage of the pancreatic remnant or anastomosis on outcomes after partial pancreatectomy. METHODS: A systematic literature search was performed using MEDLINE and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) up to March 2024. All RCTs analysing a coverage method in patients undergoing partial pancreatoduodenectomy or distal pancreatectomy were included. The primary outcome was postoperative pancreatic fistula development. Subgroup analyses for pancreatoduodenectomy or distal pancreatectomy and artificial or autologous coverage were conducted. RESULTS: A total of 18 RCTs with 2326 patients were included. In the overall analysis, coverage decreased the incidence of postoperative pancreatic fistulas by 29% (OR 0.71, 95% c.i. 0.54 to 0.93, P < 0.01). This decrease was also seen in the 12 RCTs covering the remnant after distal pancreatectomy (OR 0.69, 95% c.i. 0.51 to 0.94, P < 0.02) and the 4 RCTs applying autologous coverage after pancreatoduodenectomy and distal pancreatectomy (OR 0.53, 95% c.i. 0.29 to 0.96, P < 0.04). Other subgroup analyses (artificial coverage or pancreatoduodenectomy) showed no statistically significant differences. The secondary endpoints of mortality, reoperations, and re-interventions were each affected positively by the use of coverage techniques. The certainty of evidence was very low to moderate. CONCLUSION: The implementation of coverage, whether artificial or autologous, is beneficial after partial pancreatectomy, especially in patients undergoing distal pancreatectomy with autologous coverage.

Olfactory Categorization Is Shaped by a Transmodal Cortical Network for Evaluating Perceptual Predictions.

Creating and evaluating predictions are considered important features in sensory perception. Little is known about processing differences between the senses and their cortical substrates. Here, we tested the hypothesis that olfaction, the sense of smell, would be highly dependent on (nonolfactory) object-predictive cues and involve distinct cortical processing features. We developed a novel paradigm to compare prediction error processing across senses. Participants listened to spoken word cues (e.g., "lilac") and determined whether target stimuli (odors or pictures) matched the word cue or not. In two behavioral experiments (total n = 113; 72 female), the disparity between congruent and incongruent response times was exaggerated for olfactory relative to visual targets, indicating a greater dependency on predictive verbal cues to process olfactory targets. A preregistered fMRI study (n = 30; 19 female) revealed the anterior cingulate cortex (a region central for error detection) being more activated by incongruent olfactory targets, indicating a role for olfactory predictive error processing. Additionally, both the primary olfactory and visual cortices were significantly activated for incongruent olfactory targets, suggesting olfactory prediction errors are dependent on cross-sensory processing resources, whereas visual prediction errors are not. We propose that olfaction is characterized by a strong dependency on predictive (nonolfactory) cues and that odors are evaluated in the context of such predictions by a designated transmodal cortical network. Our results indicate differences in how predictive cues are used by different senses in rapid decision-making.

Dual centrifugation as a novel and efficient method for the preparation of lipodisks.

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-stabilized lipodisks have emerged as innovatiive, promising nanocarriers for several classes of drugs. Prior research underscores the important role of lipid composition and preparation method in determining the lipodisk size, uniformity, and drug loading capacity. In this study, we investigate dual centrifugation (DC) as a novel technique for the production of PEG-stabilized lipodisks. Moreover, we explore the potential use of DC for the encapsulation of two model drugs, curcumin and doxorubicin, within the disks. Our results show that by a considerate choice of experimental conditions, DC can be used as a fast and straightforward means to produce small and homogenous lipodisks with a hydrodynamic diameter of 20-30 nm. Noteworthy, the technique works well for the production of both cholesterol-free and cholesterol-containing disks and does not require pre-mixing of the lipids in organic solvent. Furthermore, our investigations confirm the efficacy of DC in formulating curcumin and doxorubicin within these lipodisks. For doxorubicin, careful control and optimization of the experimental conditions resulted in formulations displaying an encouraging encapsulation efficiency of 84 % and a favourable drug-to-lipid ratio of 0.13 in the disks.

Degeneration of the cholinergic system in individuals with subjective cognitive decline: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) is a risk factor for future cognitive impairment and dementia. It is uncertain whether the neurodegeneration of the cholinergic system is already present in SCD individuals. We aimed to review the current evidence about the association between SCD and biomarkers of degeneration in the cholinergic system. METHOD: Original articles were extracted from three databases: Pubmed, Web of Sciences, and Scopus, in January 2023. Two researchers screened the studies independently. RESULTS: A total of 11 research articles were selected. SCD was mostly based on amnestic cognitive complaints. Cholinergic system biomarkers included neuroimaging markers of basal forebrain volume, functional connectivity, transcranial magnetic stimulation, or biofluid. The evidence showed associations between basal forebrain atrophy, poorer connectivity of the cholinergic system, and SCD CONCLUSIONS: Degenerative changes in the cholinergic system can be present in SCD. Subjective complaints may help when identifying individuals with brain changes that are associated with cognitive impairment. These findings may have important implications in targeting individuals that may benefit from cholinergic-target treatments at very early stages of neurodegenerative diseases.

Position-sensitive non-destructive detection of charged-particle bunches in low-energy beamlines.

We have developed and operated an electronic detection system for the non-destructive single-pass detection of bunches of charged particles in a beamline that allows for a measurement of their lateral position with respect to the central beamline axis on a shot-to-shot basis. It provides all features of our related development reported in Kiffer et al. (Rev Sci Instrum 90:113301, 2019), namely single-pass measurement of bunch length, kinetic energy and absolute charge, and is additionally designed to provide the lateral position of bunches with sub-mm accuracy. We show the setup, associated methods and provide characterizing measurements with bunches of highly charged ions in the keV regime of kinetic energy that demonstrate the capabilities and show a typical application.

Amplitude noise suppression in Yb:doped NALM oscillators utilizing saturable absorber settings.

Optical frequency combs based on fiber lasers mode-locked (ML) with a nonlinear amplifying loop mirror (NALM) have become the backbone of many cutting-edge applications, ranging from precision spectroscopy to quantum physics. Being extremely precise measurement tools, understanding their passive stability and low-noise operation regimes is vital. While several influences on the laser noise have been studied, many parameters remain poorly understood. Here, we systematically analyze under which preconditions the artificial saturable absorber settings of the laser can be modified during operation without losing mode-locking and the effects on laser noise, the spectrum and the output power. Our results show that it is possible to decrease the amplitude noise (AM noise) of the laser by more than 50 % by simply rotating a wave plate within the laser cavity. Additionally, we discuss differences to a similar effect observed in a NALM-alike laser amplifier and of changing the output coupling. These findings deepen our understanding and capabilities of optimizing the noise performance of ML fiber lasers, enable us to investigate new parameter spaces, and can be used to further optimize the noise performance of the NALM laser design, making it an ideal light source for advanced setups both in research and industry.

Preparation of Nanosized Pharmaceutical Formulations by Dual Centrifugation.

Dual centrifugation (DC) is an innovative in-vial homogenization and in-vial nanomilling technique that has been in use for the preparation of liposomes for more than one decade. Since then, DC has continuously been developed for preparing various liposomes and other lipid nanoparticles including emulsions and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) as well as polymersomes and nanocrystals. Improvements in equipment technology have been achieved over the past decade, so that DC is now on its way to becoming the quasi-standard for the simple, fast, and aseptic production of lipid nanoparticles and nanocrystals in small and medium batch sizes, including the possibility of simple and fast formulation screening or bedside preparations of therapeutic nanoparticles. More than 68 publications in which DC was used to produce nanoparticles have appeared since then, justifying an initial review of the use of DC for pharmaceutical nanotechnology.

Semantic processing in children with Cochlear Implants: A review of current N400 studies and recommendations for future research.

Deaf and hard of hearing children with cochlear implants (CI) often display impaired spoken language skills. While a large number of studies investigated brain responses to sounds in this population, relatively few focused on semantic processing. Here we summarize and discuss findings in four studies of the N400, a cortical response that reflects semantic processing, in children with CI. A study with auditory target stimuli found N400 effects at delayed latencies at 12 months after implantation, but at 18 and 24 months after implantation effects had typical latencies. In studies with visual target stimuli N400 effects were larger than or similar to controls in children with CI, despite lower semantic abilities. We propose that in children with CI, the observed large N400 effect reflects a stronger reliance on top-down predictions, relative to bottom-up language processing. Recent behavioral studies of children and adults with CI suggest that top-down processing is a common compensatory strategy, but with distinct limitations such as being effortful. A majority of the studies have small sample sizes (N < 20), and only responses to image targets were studied repeatedly in similar paradigms. This precludes strong conclusions. We give suggestions for future research and ways to overcome the scarcity of participants, including extending research to children with conventional hearing aids, an understudied group.

Variation in daytime general practice services and association with out-of-hours use for older patients: protocol for a Danish cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Out-of-hours primary care services cannot provide the same continuity and coordination of care as general practice. Thus, patients with high risk of complex care trajectories should, when possible, be treated by the general practitioner during daytime opening hours. This study aims to analyse the variation among general practices in the frequencies of daytime services for persons aged ≥75 years and how it relates to the patients' use of out-of-hours services. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Register-based cohort study of all Danish citizens aged ≥75 years, of whom >98% are listed with a general practice. Using Poisson regression, we will estimate each practice's excess variation in delivered daytime services compared with the expected based on the characteristics of its listed patients. Delivered daytime services will be analysed overall and separately for face-to-face, phone, email, home visit and preventive services. The association with the use of out-of-hours services will be analysed by Poisson regression. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Complying with European data protection rules, the legal services at University of Southern Denmark (Research & Innovation Organisation) approved the data processing activities regarding this project (journal number 11.593). According to section 14.2 of the Act on Research Ethics Review of Health Research Projects, because the study is based solely on register data, approval from the ethics committee and informed consent are not required. Results from the study will be disseminated as publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals and at international conferences.

Continuity and discontinuity of care among older patients in Danish general practice: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Continuity of care (COC) for older adults has been associated with lower use of healthcare services, decreased risk of hospitalisation, and lower mortality. However, research on COC in older adults is limited by short time periods and small sample sizes. Long-term COC can only develop if the patient stays with the general practice for ≥10 years. Therefore, research that focuses on long duration and broader populations is needed. AIM: To measure the extent of longitudinal site-level COC in general practice and listing duration of the patient-general practice relation for all older Danish citizens. DESIGN & SETTING: Retrospective cohort study of all patients aged ≥65 years on 31 December 2021 listed with a Danish general practice (N = 1 144 941 persons). METHOD: Individual-level register data were used on start and end dates for listing with a general practice to analyse site-level COC by number of changes and listing duration of the patient-general practice relation from January 2007-December 2021. RESULTS: During the 15 years, 39.3% of older adults did not change general practice. Among the remaining 60.7%, who experienced discontinuity of care, 34.0% changed once, 16.3% changed twice, and 6.3% changed three times. Overall, <5% changed general practice >3 times. The duration of the patient-general practice relations were on average 9.5 years. Overall, 27.5% lasted 0-4 years, 33.7% lasted 5-9 years, and 38.8% lasted ≥10 years. CONCLUSION: Danish general practice provides high levels of site-level COC for their older patients. On average, patients aged ≥65 years changed general practice once and had a patient-general practice relation length of 9.5 years.

Body odour disgust sensitivity is associated with xenophobia: evidence from nine countries across five continents.

Body odour disgust sensitivity (BODS) reflects a behavioural disposition to avoid pathogens, and it may also involve social attitudes. Among participants in the USA, high levels of BODS were associated with stronger xenophobia towards a fictitious refugee group. To test the generalizability of this finding, we analysed data from nine countries across five continents (N = 6836). Using structural equation modelling, we found support for our pre-registered hypotheses: higher BODS levels were associated with more xenophobic attitudes; this relationship was partially explained by perceived dissimilarities of the refugees' norms regarding hygiene and food preparation, and general attitudes toward immigration. Our results support a theoretical notion of how pathogen avoidance is associated with social attitudes: 'traditional norms' often involve behaviours that limit inter-group contact, social mobility and situations that might lead to pathogen exposure. Our results also indicate that the positive relationship between BODS and xenophobia is robust across cultures.

Body odor disgust sensitivity (BODS) is related to extreme odor valence perception.

Odors are important disease cues, and disgust sensitivity to body odors reflects individual differences in disease avoidance. The body odor disgust sensitivity (BODS) scale provides a rapid and valid assessment of individual differences. Nevertheless, little is known about how individual differences in BODS might correlate with overall odor perception or how it is related to other differences in emotional reactivity (e.g., affect intensity). We investigated how BODS relates to perceptual ratings of pleasant and unpleasant odors. We aggregated data from 4 experiments (total N = 190) that were conducted in our laboratory, and where valence and intensity ratings were collected. Unpleasant odors were body-like (e.g., sweat-like valeric acid), which may provide disease cues. The pleasant odors were, in contrast, often found in soap and cleaning products (e.g., lilac, lemon). Across experiments, we show that individuals with higher BODS levels perceived smells as more highly valenced overall: unpleasant smells were rated as more unpleasant, and pleasant smells were rated as more pleasant. These results suggest that body odor disgust sensitivity is associated with a broader pattern of affect intensity which causes stronger emotional responses to both negative and positive odors. In contrast, BODS levels were not associated with odor intensity perception. Furthermore, disgust sensitivity to odors coming from external sources (e.g., someone else's sweat) was the best predictor of odor valence ratings. The effects were modest in size. The results validate the BODS scale as it is explicitly associated with experimental ratings of odor valence.

Odor identification errors reveal cognitive aspects of age-associated smell loss.

Human olfaction can be extraordinarily sensitive, and its most common assessment method is odor identification (OID), where everyday odors are matched to word labels in a multiple-choice format. However, many older persons are unable to identify familiar odors, a deficit that is associated with the risk of future dementia and mortality. The underlying processes subserving OID in older adults are poorly understood. Here, we analyzed error patterns in OID to test whether errors could be explained by perceptual and/or semantic similarities among the response alternatives. We investigated the OID response patterns in a large, population-based sample of older adults in Sweden (n = 2479; age 60-100 years). Olfaction was assessed by a 'Sniffin ́ TOM OID test with 16 odors; each trial involved matching a target odor to a correct label among three distractors. We analyzed the pattern of misidentifications, and the results showed that some distractors were more frequently selected than others, suggesting cognitive or perceptual factors may be present. Relatedly, we conducted a large online survey of older adults (n = 959, age 60-90 years) who were asked to imagine and rate the perceptual similarity of the target odors and the three corresponding distractors (e.g. "How similar are these smells: apple and mint?"). We then used data from the Swedish web corpus and the Word2Vec neural network algorithm to quantify the semantic association strength between the labels of each target odor and its three distractors. These data sources were used to predict odor identification errors. We found that the error patterns were partly explained by both the semantic similarity between target-distractor pairs, and the imagined perceptual similarity of the target-distractor pair. Both factors had, however, a diminished prediction in older ages, as responses became gradually less systematic. In sum, our results suggest that OID tests not only reflect olfactory perception, but also likely involve the mental processing of odor-semantic associations. This may be the reason why these tests are useful in predicting dementia onset. Our insights into olfactory-language interactions could be harnessed to develop new olfactory tests that are tailored for specific clinical purposes.

A parosmia severity index based on word-classification predicts olfactory abilities and impairment.

Parosmia is an olfactory disorder that involves distortions of specific odors that may co-occur with anosmia, loss of smell of other odors. Little is known about which odors frequently trigger parosmia, and measures of parosmia severity are lacking. Here, we present an approach to understand and diagnose parosmia that is based on semantic properties (e.g., valence) of words describing odor sources ("fish", "coffee", etc.). Using a data-driven method based on natural language data, we identified 38 odor descriptors. Descriptors were evenly dispersed across an olfactory-semantic space, which was based on key odor dimensions. Parosmia patients (n = 48) classified the corresponding odors in terms of whether they trigger parosmic or anosmic sensations. We investigated whether these classifications are related to semantic properties of the descriptors. Parosmic sensations were most often reported for words describing unpleasant odors of inedibles that are highly associated to olfaction (e.g., "excrement"). Based on PCA modeling, we derived the Parosmia Severity Index-a measure of parosmia severity that can be determined solely from our non-olfactory behavioral task. This index predicts olfactory-perceptual abilities, self-reported olfactory impairment, and depression. We thus provide a novel approach for investigating parosmia and establishing its severity that does not require odor exposure. Our work may enhance our understanding of how parosmia changes over time and how it is expressed differently across individuals.

Tailoring the Lamellarity of Liposomes Prepared by Dual Centrifugation.

Dual centrifugation (DC) is a new and versatile technique for the preparation of liposomes by in-vial homogenization of lipid-water mixtures. Size, size distribution, and entrapping efficiencies are strongly dependent on the lipid concentration during DC-homogenization. In this study, we investigated the detailed structure of DC-made liposomes. To do so, an assay to determine the ratio of inner to total membrane surfaces of liposomes (inaccessible surface) was developed based on either time-resolved or steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. In addition, cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) was used to confirm the lamellarity results and learn more about liposome morphology. One striking result leads to the possibility of producing a novel type of liposome-small multilamellar vesicles (SMVs) with low PDI, sizes of the order of 100 nm, and almost completely filled with bilayers. A second particularly important finding is that VPGs can be prepared to contain open bilayer structures that will close spontaneously when, after storage, more aqueous phase is added and liposomes are formed. Through this process, a drug can effectively be entrapped immediately before application. In addition, dual centrifugation at lower lipid concentrations is found to produce predominantly unilamellar vesicles.

Subjective Impairments in Olfaction and Cognition Predict Dissociated Behavioral Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Self-rated subjective cognitive decline (SCD) and subjective olfactory impairment (SOI) are associated with objective cognitive decline and dementia. However, their relationship and co-occurrence is unknown. We aimed to (a) describe the occurrence of SOI, SCD and their overlap in the general population; (b) compare SOI and SCD in terms of longitudinal associations with corresponding objective olfactory and cognitive measures; and (c) describe how SOI and SCD may lead to distinct sensory and cognitive outcomes. METHODS: Cognitively unimpaired individuals from the third wave of the Swedish population-based Betula study (n = 784, aged 35-90 years; 51% females) were split into self-rated SOI, SCD, overlapping SCD + SOI, and controls. Between-subject and within-subject repeated-measures MANCOVA were used to compare the groups regarding odor identification, cognition, age, sex, and education. Spearman correlation was used to assess the different patterns of association between olfaction and cognition across groups. RESULTS: SOI was present in 21.1%, whereas SCD was present in 9.9% of participants. According to a chi-square analysis, the SCD + SOI overlap (2.7%) is on a level that could be expected if the phenomena were independent. Odor identification in SOI showed decline at the 10-year follow-up (n = 284) and was positively associated with cognition. The SOI and SCD groups showed distinct cognitive-olfactory profiles at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: SOI occur independently of SCD in the population, and these risk factors are associated with different cognitive and olfactory outcomes. The biological causes underlying SOI and SCD, as well as the risk for future cognitive impairment, need further investigation.