ABSTRACT
The regulated glycosylation of the proteome has widespread effects on biological processes that cancer cells can exploit. Expression of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V (encoded by Mgat5 or GnT-V), which catalyzes the addition of ß1,6-linked N-acetylglucosamine to form complex N-glycans, has been linked to tumor growth and metastasis across tumor types. Using a panel of murine pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) clonal cell lines that recapitulate the immune heterogeneity of PDAC, we found that Mgat5 is required for tumor growth in vivo but not in vitro. Loss of Mgat5 results in tumor clearance that is dependent on T cells and dendritic cells, with NK cells playing an early role. Analysis of extrinsic cell death pathways revealed Mgat5-deficient cells have increased sensitivity to cell death mediated by the TNF superfamily, a property that was shared with other non-PDAC Mgat5-deficient cell lines. Finally, Mgat5 knockout in an immunotherapy-resistant PDAC line significantly decreased tumor growth and increased survival upon immune checkpoint blockade. These findings demonstrate a role for N-glycosylation in regulating the sensitivity of cancer cells to T cell killing through classical cell death pathways.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , N-Acetylglucosaminyltransferases , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Animals , Humans , Mice , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/immunology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/metabolism , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Cell Line, Tumor , Dendritic Cells/immunology , Dendritic Cells/metabolism , Glycosylation , Killer Cells, Natural/immunology , Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism , Mice, Knockout , N-Acetylglucosaminyltransferases/metabolism , N-Acetylglucosaminyltransferases/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , T-Lymphocytes/immunology , T-Lymphocytes/metabolismABSTRACT
Oncogenesis and progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) are driven by complex interactions between the neoplastic component and the tumor microenvironment, which includes immune, stromal, and parenchymal cells. In particular, most PDACs are characterized by a hypovascular and hypoxic environment that alters tumor cell behavior and limits the efficacy of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Characterization of the spatial features of the vascular niche could advance our understanding of inter- and intratumoral heterogeneity in PDAC. In this study, we investigated the vascular microenvironment of PDAC by applying imaging mass cytometry using a 26-antibody panel on 35 regions of interest across 9 patients, capturing more than 140,000 single cells. The approach distinguished major cell types, including multiple populations of lymphoid and myeloid cells, endocrine cells, ductal cells, stromal cells, and endothelial cells. Evaluation of cellular neighborhoods identified 10 distinct spatial domains, including multiple immune and tumor-enriched environments as well as the vascular niche. Focused analysis revealed differential interactions between immune populations and the vasculature and identified distinct spatial domains wherein tumor cell proliferation occurs. Importantly, the vascular niche was closely associated with a population of CD44-expressing macrophages enriched for a proangiogenic gene signature. Taken together, this study provides insights into the spatial heterogeneity of PDAC and suggests a role for CD44-expressing macrophages in shaping the vascular niche. Significance: Imaging mass cytometry revealed that pancreatic ductal cancers are composed of 10 distinct cellular neighborhoods, including a vascular niche enriched for macrophages expressing high levels of CD44 and a proangiogenic gene signature.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Image Cytometry , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Tumor Microenvironment , Humans , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/blood supply , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/blood supply , Image Cytometry/methods , Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology , Neovascularization, Pathologic/metabolism , Hyaluronan Receptors/metabolism , Hyaluronan Receptors/analysisABSTRACT
Broad-spectrum RAS inhibition has the potential to benefit roughly a quarter of human patients with cancer whose tumours are driven by RAS mutations1,2. RMC-7977 is a highly selective inhibitor of the active GTP-bound forms of KRAS, HRAS and NRAS, with affinity for both mutant and wild-type variants3. More than 90% of cases of human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) are driven by activating mutations in KRAS4. Here we assessed the therapeutic potential of RMC-7977 in a comprehensive range of PDAC models. We observed broad and pronounced anti-tumour activity across models following direct RAS inhibition at exposures that were well-tolerated in vivo. Pharmacological analyses revealed divergent responses to RMC-7977 in tumour versus normal tissues. Treated tumours exhibited waves of apoptosis along with sustained proliferative arrest, whereas normal tissues underwent only transient decreases in proliferation, with no evidence of apoptosis. In the autochthonous KPC mouse model, RMC-7977 treatment resulted in a profound extension of survival followed by on-treatment relapse. Analysis of relapsed tumours identified Myc copy number gain as a prevalent candidate resistance mechanism, which could be overcome by combinatorial TEAD inhibition in vitro. Together, these data establish a strong preclinical rationale for the use of broad-spectrum RAS-GTP inhibition in the setting of PDAC and identify a promising candidate combination therapeutic regimen to overcome monotherapy resistance.
Subject(s)
Antineoplastic Agents , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Guanosine Triphosphate , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras) , Animals , Female , Humans , Mice , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use , Apoptosis/drug effects , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/drug therapy , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/metabolism , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Disease Models, Animal , DNA Copy Number Variations , Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/drug effects , Genes, myc , Guanosine Triphosphate/metabolism , Mice, Inbred BALB C , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/drug therapy , Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/drug therapy , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/genetics , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/metabolism , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/antagonists & inhibitors , Treatment Outcome , Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays , MutationABSTRACT
Acquired resistance to immunotherapy remains a critical yet incompletely understood biological mechanism. Here, using a mouse model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) to study tumor relapse following immunotherapy-induced responses, we find that resistance is reproducibly associated with an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), with EMT-transcription factors ZEB1 and SNAIL functioning as master genetic and epigenetic regulators of this effect. Acquired resistance in this model is not due to immunosuppression in the tumor immune microenvironment, disruptions in the antigen presentation machinery, or altered expression of immune checkpoints. Rather, resistance is due to a tumor cell-intrinsic defect in T-cell killing. Molecularly, EMT leads to the epigenetic and transcriptional silencing of interferon regulatory factor 6 (Irf6), rendering tumor cells less sensitive to the pro-apoptotic effects of TNF-α. These findings indicate that acquired resistance to immunotherapy may be mediated by programs distinct from those governing primary resistance, including plasticity programs that render tumor cells impervious to T-cell killing.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Humans , Cell Line, Tumor , Neoplasm Recurrence, Local , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/therapy , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/therapy , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Immunotherapy , Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition/genetics , Tumor MicroenvironmentABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) continues to have a dismal prognosis. The poor survival of patients with PDA has been attributed to a high rate of early metastasis and low efficacy of current therapies, which partly result from its complex immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Previous studies from our group and others have shown that tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) are instrumental in maintaining immunosuppression in PDA. Here, we explored the role of Notch signaling, a key regulator of immune response, within the PDA microenvironment. We identified Notch pathway components in multiple immune cell types within human and mouse pancreatic cancer. TAMs, the most abundant immune cell population in the tumor microenvironment, expressed high levels of Notch receptors, with cognate ligands such as JAG1 expressed on tumor epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. TAMs with activated Notch signaling expressed higher levels of immunosuppressive mediators, suggesting that Notch signaling plays a role in macrophage polarization within the PDA microenvironment. Genetic inhibition of Notch in myeloid cells led to reduced tumor size and decreased macrophage infiltration in an orthotopic PDA model. Combination of pharmacologic Notch inhibition with PD-1 blockade resulted in increased cytotoxic T-cell infiltration, tumor cell apoptosis, and smaller tumor size. Our work implicates macrophage Notch signaling in the establishment of immunosuppression and indicates that targeting the Notch pathway may improve the efficacy of immune-based therapies in patients with PDA.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Humans , Mice , Animals , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/metabolism , Endothelial Cells/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Tumor MicroenvironmentABSTRACT
Broad-spectrum RAS inhibition holds the potential to benefit roughly a quarter of human cancer patients whose tumors are driven by RAS mutations. However, the impact of inhibiting RAS functions in normal tissues is not known. RMC-7977 is a highly selective inhibitor of the active (GTP-bound) forms of KRAS, HRAS, and NRAS, with affinity for both mutant and wild type (WT) variants. As >90% of human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cases are driven by activating mutations in KRAS, we assessed the therapeutic potential of RMC-7977 in a comprehensive range of PDAC models, including human and murine cell lines, human patient-derived organoids, human PDAC explants, subcutaneous and orthotopic cell-line or patient derived xenografts, syngeneic allografts, and genetically engineered mouse models. We observed broad and pronounced anti-tumor activity across these models following direct RAS inhibition at doses and concentrations that were well-tolerated in vivo. Pharmacological analyses revealed divergent responses to RMC-7977 in tumor versus normal tissues. Treated tumors exhibited waves of apoptosis along with sustained proliferative arrest whereas normal tissues underwent only transient decreases in proliferation, with no evidence of apoptosis. Together, these data establish a strong preclinical rationale for the use of broad-spectrum RAS inhibition in the setting of PDAC.
ABSTRACT
PURPOSE: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is generally divided in two subtypes, classical and basal. Recently, single cell RNA sequencing has uncovered the co-existence of basal and classical cancer cells, as well as intermediary cancer cells, in individual tumors. The latter remains poorly understood; here, we sought to characterize them using a multimodal approach. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We performed subtyping on a single cell RNA sequencing dataset containing 18 human PDAC samples to identify multiple intermediary subtypes. We generated patient-derived PDAC organoids for functional studies. We compared single cell profiling of matched blood and tumor samples to measure changes in the local and systemic immune microenvironment. We then leveraged longitudinally patient-matched blood to follow individual patients over the course of chemotherapy. RESULTS: We identified a cluster of KRT17-high intermediary cancer cells that uniquely express high levels of CXCL8 and other cytokines. The proportion of KRT17High/CXCL8+ cells in patient tumors correlated with intra-tumoral myeloid abundance, and, interestingly, high pro-tumor peripheral blood granulocytes, implicating local and systemic roles. Patient-derived organoids maintained KRT17High/CXCL8+cells and induced myeloid cell migration in an CXCL8-dependent manner. In our longitudinal studies, plasma CXCL8 decreased following chemotherapy in responsive patients, while CXCL8 persistence portended worse prognosis. CONCLUSIONS: Through single cell analysis of PDAC samples we identified KRT17High/CXCL8+ cancer cells as an intermediary subtype, marked by a unique cytokine profile and capable of influencing myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment and systemically. The abundance of this cell population should be considered for patient stratification in precision immunotherapy.
ABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) continues to have a dismal prognosis. The poor survival of patients with PDA has been attributed to a high rate of early metastasis and low efficacy of current therapies, which partly result from its complex immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Previous studies from our group and others have shown that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are instrumental in maintaining immunosuppression in PDA. Here, we explored the role of Notch signaling, a key regulator of immune response, within the PDA microenvironment. We identified Notch pathway components in multiple immune cell types within human and mouse pancreatic cancer. TAMs, the most abundant immune cell population in the tumor microenvironment, express high levels of Notch receptors with cognate ligands such as JAG1 expressed on tumor epithelial cells, endothelial cells and fibroblasts. TAMs with activated Notch signaling expressed higher levels of immunosuppressive mediators including arginase 1 (Arg1) suggesting that Notch signaling plays a role in macrophage polarization within the PDA microenvironment. Combination of Notch inhibition with PD-1 blockade resulted in increased cytotoxic T cell infiltration, tumor cell apoptosis, and smaller tumor size. Our work implicates macrophage Notch signaling in the establishment of immunosuppression and indicates that targeting the Notch pathway may improve the efficacy of immune-based therapies in PDA patients.
ABSTRACT
Mutations in the KRAS oncogene are found in more than 90% of patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), with Gly-to-Asp mutations (KRASG12D) being the most common. Here, we tested the efficacy of a small-molecule KRASG12D inhibitor, MRTX1133, in implantable and autochthonous PDAC models with an intact immune system. In vitro studies validated the specificity and potency of MRTX1133. In vivo, MRTX1133 prompted deep tumor regressions in all models tested, including complete or near-complete remissions after 14 days. Concomitant with tumor cell apoptosis and proliferative arrest, drug treatment led to marked shifts in the tumor microenvironment (TME), including changes in fibroblasts, matrix, and macrophages. T cells were necessary for MRTX1133's full antitumor effect, and T-cell depletion accelerated tumor regrowth after therapy. These results validate the specificity, potency, and efficacy of MRTX1133 in immunocompetent KRASG12D-mutant PDAC models, providing a rationale for clinical testing and a platform for further investigation of combination therapies. SIGNIFICANCE: Pharmacologic inhibition of KRASG12D in pancreatic cancer models with an intact immune system stimulates specific, potent, and durable tumor regressions. In the absence of overt toxicity, these results suggest that this and similar inhibitors should be tested as potential, high-impact novel therapies for patients with PDAC. See related commentary by Redding and Grabocka, p. 260. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 247.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Humans , Pancreatic Neoplasms/drug therapy , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/drug therapy , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Mutation , Cell Line, Tumor , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/genetics , Tumor Microenvironment , Pancreatic NeoplasmsABSTRACT
Mitochondrial glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase 2 (GOT2) is part of the malate-aspartate shuttle, a mechanism by which cells transfer reducing equivalents from the cytosol to the mitochondria. GOT2 is a key component of mutant KRAS (KRAS*)-mediated rewiring of glutamine metabolism in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA). Here, we demonstrate that the loss of GOT2 disturbs redox homeostasis and halts proliferation of PDA cells in vitro. GOT2 knockdown (KD) in PDA cell lines in vitro induced NADH accumulation, decreased Asp and α-ketoglutarate (αKG) production, stalled glycolysis, disrupted the TCA cycle, and impaired proliferation. Oxidizing NADH through chemical or genetic means resolved the redox imbalance induced by GOT2 KD, permitting sustained proliferation. Despite a strong in vitro inhibitory phenotype, loss of GOT2 had no effect on tumor growth in xenograft PDA or autochthonous mouse models. We show that cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), a major component of the pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME), release the redox active metabolite pyruvate, and culturing GOT2 KD cells in CAF conditioned media (CM) rescued proliferation in vitro. Furthermore, blocking pyruvate import or pyruvate-to-lactate reduction prevented rescue of GOT2 KD in vitro by exogenous pyruvate or CAF CM. However, these interventions failed to sensitize xenografts to GOT2 KD in vivo, demonstrating the remarkable plasticity and differential metabolism deployed by PDA cells in vitro and in vivo. This emphasizes how the environmental context of distinct pre-clinical models impacts both cell-intrinsic metabolic rewiring and metabolic crosstalk with the TME.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal , Pancreatic Neoplasms , Animals , Aspartate Aminotransferase, Mitochondrial/genetics , Aspartate Aminotransferase, Mitochondrial/metabolism , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins , Humans , Mice , NAD/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/metabolism , Pyruvic Acid/metabolism , Tumor Microenvironment , Pancreatic NeoplasmsABSTRACT
BACKGROUND & AIMS: Oncogenic Kirsten Rat Sarcoma virus (KRAS) is the hallmark mutation of human pancreatic cancer and a driver of tumorigenesis in genetically engineered mouse models of the disease. Although the tumor cell-intrinsic effects of oncogenic Kras expression have been widely studied, its role in regulating the extensive pancreatic tumor microenvironment is less understood. METHODS: Using a genetically engineered mouse model of inducible and reversible oncogenic Kras expression and a combination of approaches that include mass cytometry and single-cell RNA sequencing we studied the effect of oncogenic KRAS in the tumor microenvironment. RESULTS: We have discovered that non-cell autonomous (ie, extrinsic) oncogenic KRAS signaling reprograms pancreatic fibroblasts, activating an inflammatory gene expression program. As a result, fibroblasts become a hub of extracellular signaling, and the main source of cytokines mediating the polarization of protumorigenic macrophages while also preventing tissue repair. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides fundamental knowledge on the mechanisms underlying the formation of the fibroinflammatory stroma in pancreatic cancer and highlights stromal pathways with the potential to be exploited therapeutically.
Subject(s)
Pancreatic Neoplasms , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras) , Animals , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Kirsten murine sarcoma virus/metabolism , Mice , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/genetics , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/metabolism , Tumor Microenvironment , Pancreatic NeoplasmsABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA), the most common pancreatic cancer, is a nearly universally lethal malignancy. PDA is characterized by extensive infiltration of immunosuppressive myeloid cells, including tumor-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment inhibit cytotoxic T-cell responses promoting carcinogenesis. Immune checkpoint therapy has not been effective in PDA, most likely because of this robust immune suppression, making it critical to elucidate mechanisms behind this phenomenon. Here, we review myeloid cell infiltration and cellular crosstalk in PDA progression and highlight current therapeutic approaches to target myeloid cell-driven immune suppression.
Subject(s)
Immunomodulation , Myeloid Cells/immunology , Myeloid Cells/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/etiology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Tumor Microenvironment/immunology , Animals , Biomarkers , Cell Communication , Cell Lineage/immunology , Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics , Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/immunology , Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/metabolism , Disease Management , Disease Susceptibility , Drug Resistance, Neoplasm , Gene Expression Profiling , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic , Humans , Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells/immunology , Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells/metabolism , Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells/pathology , Neoplasm Metastasis , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/therapy , Signal Transduction , Single-Cell Analysis/methods , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/immunology , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/metabolism , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/pathologyABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal malignancy with few effective therapeutic options. PDAC is characterized by an extensive fibroinflammatory stroma that includes abundant infiltrating immune cells. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) are prevalent within the stroma and are key drivers of immunosuppression. TAMs in human and murine PDAC are characterized by elevated expression of apolipoprotein E (ApoE), an apolipoprotein that mediates cholesterol metabolism and has known roles in cardiovascular and Alzheimer's disease but no known role in PDAC. We report here that ApoE is also elevated in peripheral blood monocytes in PDAC patients, and plasma ApoE protein levels stratify patient survival. Orthotopic implantation of mouse PDAC cells into syngeneic wild-type or in ApoE-/- mice showed reduced tumor growth in ApoE-/- mice. Histologic and mass cytometric (CyTOF) analysis of these tumors showed an increase in CD8+ T cells in tumors in ApoE-/- mice. Mechanistically, ApoE induced pancreatic tumor cell expression of Cxcl1 and Cxcl5, known immunosuppressive factors, through LDL receptor and NF-κB signaling. Taken together, this study reveals a novel immunosuppressive role of ApoE in the PDAC microenvironment. SIGNIFICANCE: This study shows that elevated apolipoprotein E in PDAC mediates immune suppression and high serum apolipoprotein E levels correlate with poor patient survival.See related commentary by Sherman, p. 4186.
Subject(s)
Apolipoproteins E/metabolism , Chemokine CXCL1/biosynthesis , NF-kappa B/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Animals , Cell Line, Tumor , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Humans , Immune System , Immunosuppression Therapy , Inflammation , Macrophages/metabolism , Mass Spectrometry , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout, ApoE , RNA-Seq , Receptors, LDL/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Single-Cell Analysis , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is accompanied by reprogramming of the local microenvironment, but changes at distal sites are poorly understood. We implanted biomaterial scaffolds, which act as an artificial premetastatic niche, into immunocompetent tumor-bearing and control mice, and identified a unique tumor-specific gene expression signature that includes high expression of C1qa, C1qb, Trem2, and Chil3 Single-cell RNA sequencing mapped these genes to two distinct macrophage populations in the scaffolds, one marked by elevated C1qa, C1qb, and Trem2, the other with high Chil3, Ly6c2 and Plac8 In mice, expression of these genes in the corresponding populations was elevated in tumor-associated macrophages compared with macrophages in the normal pancreas. We then analyzed single-cell RNA sequencing from patient samples, and determined expression of C1QA, C1QB, and TREM2 is elevated in human macrophages in primary tumors and liver metastases. Single-cell sequencing analysis of patient blood revealed a substantial enrichment of the same gene signature in monocytes. Taken together, our study identifies two distinct tumor-associated macrophage and monocyte populations that reflects systemic immune changes in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma patients.
Subject(s)
Monocytes/metabolism , Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/metabolism , Adult , Animals , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/metabolism , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Carrier Proteins , Complement C1q , Female , Gene Expression/genetics , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/genetics , Humans , Macrophages/metabolism , Male , Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mitochondrial Proteins , Pancreatic Neoplasms/blood , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Receptors, Complement , Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism , Sequence Analysis, RNA , Single-Cell Analysis , Transcriptome/genetics , Tumor Microenvironment/genetics , Tumor-Associated Macrophages/physiology , Pancreatic NeoplasmsABSTRACT
PURPOSE: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a deadly disease characterized by an extensive fibroinflammatory stroma, which includes abundant cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) populations. PDAC CAFs are heterogeneous, but the nature of this heterogeneity is incompletely understood. The Hedgehog pathway functions in PDAC in a paracrine manner, with ligands secreted by cancer cells signaling to stromal cells in the microenvironment. Previous reports investigating the role of Hedgehog signaling in PDAC have been contradictory, with Hedgehog signaling alternately proposed to promote or restrict tumor growth. In light of the newly discovered CAF heterogeneity, we investigated how Hedgehog pathway inhibition reprograms the PDAC microenvironment. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We used a combination of pharmacologic inhibition, gain- and loss-of-function genetic experiments, cytometry by time-of-flight, and single-cell RNA sequencing to study the roles of Hedgehog signaling in PDAC. RESULTS: We found that Hedgehog signaling is uniquely activated in fibroblasts and differentially elevated in myofibroblastic CAFs (myCAF) compared with inflammatory CAFs (iCAF). Sonic Hedgehog overexpression promotes tumor growth, while Hedgehog pathway inhibition with the smoothened antagonist, LDE225, impairs tumor growth. Furthermore, Hedgehog pathway inhibition reduces myCAF numbers and increases iCAF numbers, which correlates with a decrease in cytotoxic T cells and an expansion in regulatory T cells, consistent with increased immunosuppression. CONCLUSIONS: Hedgehog pathway inhibition alters fibroblast composition and immune infiltration in the pancreatic cancer microenvironment.
Subject(s)
Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Hedgehog Proteins/physiology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Animals , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/drug therapy , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/immunology , Hedgehog Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Humans , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Pancreatic Neoplasms/drug therapy , Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology , Signal Transduction/physiology , Tumor MicroenvironmentABSTRACT
BACKGROUND & AIMS: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) initiation and progression are accompanied by an immunosuppressive inflammatory response. Here, we evaluated the immunomodulatory role of chemosensory signaling in metaplastic tuft cells (MTCs) by analyzing the role of GNAT3, a gustatory pathway G-protein expressed by MTCs, during PDA progression. METHODS: Gnat3-null (Gnat3-/-) mice were crossbred with animals harboring a Cre-inducible KrasLSL-G12D/+ allele with either Ptf1aCre/+ (KC) or tamoxifen-inducible Ptf1aCreERT/+ (KCERT) mice to drive oncogenic KRAS expression in the pancreas. Ex vivo organoid conditioned medium generated from KC and Gnat3-/-;KC acinar cells was analyzed for cytokine secretion. Experimental pancreatitis was induced in KCERT and Gnat3-/-;KCERT mice to accelerate tumorigenesis, followed by analysis using mass cytometry and single-cell RNA sequencing. To study PDA progression, KC and Gnat3-/-;KC mice were aged to morbidity or 52 weeks. RESULTS: Ablation of Gnat3 in KC organoids increased release of tumor-promoting cytokines in conditioned media, including CXCL1 and CXCL2. Analysis of Gnat3-/-;KCERT pancreata found altered expression of immunomodulatory genes in Cxcr2 expressing myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and an increased number of granulocytic MDSCs, a subset of tumor promoting MDSCs. Importantly, expression levels of CXCL1 and CXCL2, known ligands for CXCR2, were also elevated in Gnat3-/-;KCERT pancreata. Consistent with the tumor-promoting role of MDSCs, aged Gnat3-/-;KC mice progressed more rapidly to metastatic carcinoma compared with KC controls. CONCLUSIONS: Compromised gustatory sensing, achieved by Gnat3 ablation, enhanced the CXCL1/2-CXCR2 axis to alter the MDSC population and promoted the progression of metastatic PDA.
Subject(s)
Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/immunology , Heterotrimeric GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Pancreatic Ducts/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology , Animals , Carcinogenesis/immunology , Carcinogenesis/pathology , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics , Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology , Cells, Cultured , Chemokine CXCL1/metabolism , Chemokine CXCL2/metabolism , Culture Media, Conditioned/metabolism , Disease Models, Animal , Heterotrimeric GTP-Binding Proteins/genetics , Humans , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells , Organoids , Pancreatic Ducts/immunology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Primary Cell Culture , Proto-Oncogene Proteins p21(ras)/genetics , Signal Transduction/immunologyABSTRACT
Regulatory T cells (Treg) are abundant in human and mouse pancreatic cancer. To understand the contribution to the immunosuppressive microenvironment, we depleted Tregs in a mouse model of pancreatic cancer. Contrary to our expectations, Treg depletion failed to relieve immunosuppression and led to accelerated tumor progression. We show that Tregs are a key source of TGFß ligands and, accordingly, their depletion reprogramed the fibroblast population, with loss of tumor-restraining, smooth muscle actin-expressing fibroblasts. Conversely, we observed an increase in chemokines Ccl3, Ccl6, and Ccl8 leading to increased myeloid cell recruitment, restoration of immune suppression, and promotion of carcinogenesis, an effect that was inhibited by blockade of the common CCL3/6/8 receptor CCR1. Further, Treg depletion unleashed pathologic CD4+ T-cell responses. Our data point to new mechanisms regulating fibroblast differentiation in pancreatic cancer and support the notion that fibroblasts are a heterogeneous population with different and opposing functions in pancreatic carcinogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE: Here, we describe an unexpected cross-talk between Tregs and fibroblasts in pancreatic cancer. Treg depletion resulted in differentiation of inflammatory fibroblast subsets, in turn driving infiltration of myeloid cells through CCR1, thus uncovering a potentially new therapeutic approach to relieve immunosuppression in pancreatic cancer.See related commentary by Aykut et al., p. 345.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 327.
Subject(s)
Carcinogenesis/genetics , Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics , Receptors, CCR1/genetics , T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology , Tumor Microenvironment/immunology , Animals , Carcinogenesis/immunology , Chemokine CCL3/genetics , Chemokine CCL8/genetics , Chemokines, CC/genetics , Disease Models, Animal , Fibroblasts/immunology , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Humans , Mice , Pancreas/immunology , Pancreas/pathology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/immunology , Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology , Transforming Growth Factor beta/genetics , Pancreatic NeoplasmsABSTRACT
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is characterized by an immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment that renders it largely refractory to immunotherapy. We implemented a multimodal analysis approach to elucidate the immune landscape in PDA. Using a combination of CyTOF, single-cell RNA sequencing, and multiplex immunohistochemistry on patient tumors, matched blood, and non-malignant samples, we uncovered a complex network of immune-suppressive cellular interactions. These experiments revealed heterogeneous expression of immune checkpoint receptors in individual patient's T cells and increased markers of CD8+ T cell dysfunction in advanced disease stage. Tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells had an increased proportion of cells expressing an exhausted expression profile that included upregulation of the immune checkpoint TIGIT, a finding that we validated at the protein level. Our findings point to a profound alteration of the immune landscape of tumors, and to patient-specific immune changes that should be taken into account as combination immunotherapy becomes available for pancreatic cancer.