Expandable Sendai-Virus-Reprogrammed Human iPSC-Neuronal Precursors: In Vivo Post-Grafting Safety Characterization in Rats and Adult Pig.

One of the challenges in clinical translation of cell-replacement therapies is the definition of optimal cell generation and storage/recovery protocols which would permit a rapid preparation of cell-treatment products for patient administration. Besides, the availability of injection devices that are simple to use is critical for potential future dissemination of any spinally targeted cell-replacement therapy into general medical practice. Here, we compared the engraftment properties of established human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)-derived neural precursor cell (NPCs) line once cells were harvested fresh from the cell culture or previously frozen and then grafted into striata or spinal cord of the immunodeficient rat. A newly developed human spinal injection device equipped with a spinal cord pulsation-cancelation magnetic needle was also tested for its safety in an adult immunosuppressed pig. Previously frozen NPCs showed similar post-grafting survival and differentiation profile as was seen for freshly harvested cells. Testing of human injection device showed acceptable safety with no detectable surgical procedure or spinal NPCs injection-related side effects.

Derivation of Sendai-Virus-Reprogrammed Human iPSCs-Neuronal Precursors: In Vitro and In Vivo Post-grafting Safety Characterization.

The critical requirements in developing clinical-grade human-induced pluripotent stem cells-derived neural precursors (hiPSCs-NPCs) are defined by expandability, genetic stability, predictable in vivo post-grafting differentiation, and acceptable safety profile. Here, we report on the use of manual-selection protocol for generating expandable and stable human NPCs from induced pluripotent stem cells. The hiPSCs were generated by the reprogramming of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with Sendai-virus (SeV) vector encoding Yamanaka factors. After induction of neural rosettes, morphologically defined NPC colonies were manually harvested, re-plated, and expanded for up to 20 passages. Established NPCs showed normal karyotype, expression of typical NPCs markers at the proliferative stage, and ability to generate functional, calcium oscillating GABAergic or glutamatergic neurons after in vitro differentiation. Grafted NPCs into the striatum or spinal cord of immunodeficient rats showed progressive maturation and expression of early and late human-specific neuronal and glial markers at 2 or 6 months post-grafting. No tumor formation was seen in NPCs-grafted brain or spinal cord samples. These data demonstrate the effective use of in vitro manual-selection protocol to generate safe and expandable NPCs from hiPSCs cells. This protocol has the potential to be used to generate GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice)-grade NPCs from hiPSCs for future clinical use.

Self-organization, quality control, and preclinical studies of human iPSC-derived retinal sheets for tissue-transplantation therapy.

Three-dimensional retinal organoids (3D-retinas) are a promising graft source for transplantation therapy. We previously developed self-organizing culture for 3D-retina generation from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Here we present a quality control method and preclinical studies for tissue-sheet transplantation. Self-organizing hPSCs differentiated into both retinal and off-target tissues. Gene expression analyses identified the major off-target tissues as eye-related, cortex-like, and spinal cord-like tissues. For quality control, we developed a qPCR-based test in which each hPSC-derived neuroepithelium was dissected into two tissue-sheets: inner-central sheet for transplantation and outer-peripheral sheet for qPCR to ensure retinal tissue selection. During qPCR, tissue-sheets were stored for 3-4 days using a newly developed preservation method. In a rat tumorigenicity study, no transplant-related adverse events were observed. In retinal degeneration model rats, retinal transplants differentiated into mature photoreceptors and exhibited light responses in electrophysiology assays. These results demonstrate our rationale toward self-organizing retinal sheet transplantation therapy.

A Genetic modification that reduces ON-bipolar cells in hESC-derived retinas enhances functional integration after transplantation.

Pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived retinal sheet transplanted in vivo can form structured photoreceptor layers, contact with host bipolar cells, and transmit light signals to host retinas. However, a major concern is the presence of graft bipolar cells that may impede host-graft interaction. In this study, we used human ESC-retinas with the deletion of Islet-1 (ISL1) gene to achieve the reduced graft ON-bipolar cells after xenotransplantation into end-stage retinal degeneration model rats. Compared with wild-type graft, ISL1 -/- hESC-retinas showed better host-graft contact, with indication of host-graft synapse formation and significant restoration of light responsiveness in host ganglion cells. We further analyzed to find out that improved functional integration of ISL1 -/- hESC-retinas seemed attributed by a better host-graft contact and a better preservation of host inner retina. ISL1 -/- hESC-retinas are promising for the efficient reconstruction of a degenerated retinal network in future clinical application.

Addition of Chk1 inhibitor and BMP4 cooperatively promotes retinal tissue formation in self-organizing human pluripotent stem cell differentiation culture.

BACKGROUND: The BMP signaling pathway plays a key role in growth, differentiation and patterning during neural development. Recent work on the generation of a self-organization of three-dimensional retinal organoid (3D-retina) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) revealed that addition of recombinant human BMP4 (rhBMP4) promotes retinal differentiation in the early neural differentiation stage. For clinical application, efficient differentiation from hPSCs to retinal cells with minimal numbers of off-target non-retinal cells is desirable. We therefore aimed to further improve an efficient retinal differentiation method for future up-scaling of cell production. METHODS: hPSCs were differentiated into 3D-retina using a modified SFEBq method. The effect of rhBMP4 with or without Checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) inhibitor (PD407824), a modulator of BMP signaling pathway, at day 3 was compared by characterizing the differentiating 3D-retina by the use of the hPSCs and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS: The Chk1 inhibitor treatment promoted retinal differentiation from hPSCs, in combination with low-concentration rhBMP4. Addition of a Chk1 inhibitor generated a unique type of organoid with neural retina (NR) encapsulated in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), possibly by promoting phosphorylation of SMAD1/5/9 in the cells inside the early aggregates. We confirmed that the Chk1-inhibitor-treated hPSC-3D-retina differentiated into rod and cone photoreceptor precursors and other types of retinal neurons, in long-term culture. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we found that combined use of rhBMP4 and a Chk1 inhibitor cooperatively promoted retinal differentiation from hPSCs. Our new retinal differentiation method is a promising option for the stable supply and up-scaling of production of 3D-retina for future cell therapy.

Analysis of extracellular vesicles as a potential index for monitoring differentiation of neural lineage cells from induced pluripotent stem cells.

To improve cell production efficacy, it is important to evaluate cell conditions during culture. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted from various cells are involved in stem cell differentiation. As EVs carry information about their source cells, we hypothesized that they may serve as a noninvasive index of cell conditions. We evaluated changes in EV morphology, concentration, and microRNA (miRNA) and protein expression in culture supernatants during the differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into neural lineage cells, for application in regenerative medicine for Parkinson's disease. We observed EVs (50-150 nm) in culture supernatants of iPSCs and differentiated cells. The EVs expressed the exosome markers CD63, CD81, and CD9. Throughout differentiation, the EV concentration in the supernatants decreased, and EV miRNA and protein expression changed substantially. Especially, miR-106b, involved in neural stem cell differentiation and normal brain development, was considerably downregulated. CD63 expression correlated with the CORIN-positive cell rate, which is an index of differentiation. Thus, EV concentration and miRNA and protein expression may reflect the differentiation status of iPSCs. These findings pave the way for the development of novel and sensitive cell culture monitoring methods.

Low Immunogenicity and Immunosuppressive Properties of Human ESC- and iPSC-Derived Retinas.

ESC- and iPSC-derived retinal transplantation is a promising therapeutic approach for disease with end-stage retinal degeneration, such as retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration. We previously showed medium- to long-term survival, maturation, and light response of transplanted human ESC- and iPSC-retina in mouse, rat, and monkey models of end-stage retinal degeneration. Because the use of patient hiPSC-derived retina with a disease-causing gene mutation is not appropriate for therapeutic use, allogeneic transplantation using retinal tissue/cells differentiated from a stocked hESC and iPSC line would be most practical. Here, we characterize the immunological properties of hESC- and iPSC-retina and present their three major advantages: (1) hESC- and iPSC-retina expressed low levels of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and little HLA class II in vitro, (2) hESC- and iPSC-retina greatly suppressed immune activation of lymphocytes in co-culture, and (3) hESC- and iPSC-retina suppressed activated immune cells partially via transforming growth factor ß signaling. These results support the use of allogeneic hESC- and iPSC-retina in future clinical application.

Publisher Correction: Preconditioning the Initial State of Feeder-free Human Pluripotent Stem Cells Promotes Self-formation of Three-dimensional Retinal Tissue.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Preconditioning the Initial State of Feeder-free Human Pluripotent Stem Cells Promotes Self-formation of Three-dimensional Retinal Tissue.

A three-dimensional retinal tissue (3D-retina) is a promising graft source for retinal transplantation therapy. We previously demonstrated that embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can generate 3D-retina in vitro using a self-organizing stem cell culture technique known as SFEBq. Here we show an optimized culture method for 3D-retina generation from feeder-free human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Although feeder-free hPSC-maintenance culture was suitable for cell therapy, feeder-free hPSC-derived aggregates tended to collapse during 3D-xdifferentiation culture. We found that the initial hPSC state was a key factor and that preconditioning of the hPSC state by modulating TGF-beta and Shh signaling improved self-formation of 3D-neuroepithelium. Using the preconditioning method, several feeder-free hPSC lines robustly differentiated into 3D-retina. In addition, changing preconditioning stimuli in undifferentiated hPSCs altered the proportions of neural retina and retinal pigment epithelium, important quality factors for 3D-retina. We demonstrated that the feeder-free hiPSC-derived 3D-retina differentiated into rod and cone photoreceptors in vitro and in vivo. Thus, preconditioning is a useful culture methodology for cell therapy to direct the initial hPSC state toward self-organizing 3D-neuroepithelium.

Robust induction of retinal pigment epithelium cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells by inhibiting FGF/MAPK signaling.

Functional decline and loss of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cause retinal diseases. Clinical studies using human embryonic stem cell (hESC)- or induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived RPE cells have shown the safety and potential efficacy of hESC/iPSC-RPE cell transplantation. However, the production of RPE cells remains somewhat problematic. hESCs/iPSCs co-cultured with mouse feeder cells carry the risk of xeno-transmitted infections and immune reactions. Moreover, increasing the rate of cell division to ensure the quantity and purity of cells with low differentiation efficiency elevates the risk of gene mutations and chromosomal abnormalities. Here, we show that the transient inhibition of the FGF/MAPK signaling pathway during the hiPSC maintenance period markedly promotes RPE differentiation efficiency under feeder-free culture conditions. Blockage of FGF/MAPK signal induces neural differentiation and generates RPE cells without subsequent inhibition of Wnt and Nodal signals, which is known to be effective for retinal specification. We also found that additional inhibition of the PKC or BMP signaling pathway together with FGF/MAPK signal inhibition further elevates RPE differentiation efficiency. Our study will be helpful for producing clinical-grade RPE cells and will facilitate the development of therapies using hESC/hiPSC-RPE cells.

Medium- to long-term survival and functional examination of human iPSC-derived retinas in rat and primate models of retinal degeneration.

BACKGROUND: We have previously reported that xeno-transplanted human ESC-derived retinas are able to mature in the immunodeficient retinal degeneration rodent models, similar to allo-transplantations using mouse iPSC-derived retina. The photoreceptors in the latter developed outer segments and formed synapses with host bipolar cells, driving light responses of host retinal ganglion cells. In view of clinical application, here we further confirmed the competency of human iPSC-derived retina (hiPSC-retina) to mature in the degenerated retinas of rat and monkey models. METHODS: Human iPSC-retinas were transplanted in rhodopsin mutant SD-Foxn1 Tg(S334ter)3LavRrrc nude rats and two monkeys with laser-induced photoreceptor degeneration. Graft maturation was studied by immunohistochemistry and its function was examined by multi-electrode array (MEA) recording in rat retinas and visually-guided saccade (VGS) in a monkey. FINDINGS: A substantial amount of mature photoreceptors in hiPSC-retina graft survived well in the host retinas for at least 5 months (rat) to over 2 years (monkey). In 4 of 7 transplanted rat retinas, RGC light responses were detected at the grafted area. A mild recovery of light perception was also suggested by the VGS performance 1.5 years after transplantation in that monkey. INTERPRETATION: Our results support the competency of hiPSC-derived retinas to be clinically applied for transplantation therapy in retinal degeneration, although the light responses observed in the present models were not conclusively distinguishable from residual functions of degenerating host retinas. The functional analysis may be further elaborated using other models with more advanced retinal degeneration.

Establishment of Immunodeficient Retinal Degeneration Model Mice and Functional Maturation of Human ESC-Derived Retinal Sheets after Transplantation.

Increasing demand for clinical retinal degeneration therapies featuring human ESC/iPSC-derived retinal tissue and cells warrants proof-of-concept studies. Here, we established two mouse models of end-stage retinal degeneration with immunodeficiency, NOG-rd1-2J and NOG-rd10, and characterized disease progress and immunodeficient status. We also transplanted human ESC-derived retinal sheets into NOG-rd1-2J and confirmed their long-term survival and maturation of the structured graft photoreceptor layer, without rejection or tumorigenesis. We recorded light responses from the host ganglion cells using a multi-electrode array system; this result was consistent with whole-mount immunostaining suggestive of host-graft synapse formation at the responding sites. This study demonstrates an application of our mouse models and provides a proof of concept for the clinical use of human ESC-derived retinal sheets.

Rewiring of regenerated axons by combining treadmill training with semaphorin3A inhibition.

BACKGROUND: Rats exhibit extremely limited motor function recovery after total transection of the spinal cord (SCT). We previously reported that SM-216289, a semaphorin3A inhibitor, enhanced axon regeneration and motor function recovery in SCT adult rats. However, these effects were limited because most regenerated axons likely do not connect to the right targets. Thus, rebuilding the appropriate connections for regenerated axons may enhance recovery. In this study, we combined semaphorin3A inhibitor treatment with extensive treadmill training to determine whether combined treatment would further enhance the "rewiring" of regenerated axons. In this study, which aimed for clinical applicability, we administered a newly developed, potent semaphorin3A inhibitor, SM-345431 (Vinaxanthone), using a novel drug delivery system that enables continuous drug delivery over the period of the experiment. RESULTS: Treatment with SM-345431 using this delivery system enhanced axon regeneration and produced significant, but limited, hindlimb motor function recovery. Although extensive treadmill training combined with SM-345431 administration did not further improve axon regeneration, hindlimb motor performance was restored, as evidenced by the significant improvement in the execution of plantar steps on a treadmill. In contrast, control SCT rats could not execute plantar steps at any point during the experimental period. Further analyses suggested that this strategy reinforced the wiring of central pattern generators in lumbar spinal circuits, which, in turn, led to enhanced motor function recovery (especially in extensor muscles). CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of combining treatments that promote axon regeneration with specific and appropriate rehabilitations that promote rewiring for the treatment of spinal cord injury.

The semaphorin 3A inhibitor SM-345431 accelerates peripheral nerve regeneration and sensitivity in a murine corneal transplantation model.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral nerve damage of the cornea is a complication following surgery or infection which may lead to decreased visual function. We examined the efficacy of the semaphorin 3A inhibitor, SM-345431, in promoting regeneration of peripheral nerves in a mouse corneal transplantation model. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: P0-Cre/Floxed-EGFP mice which express EGFP in peripheral nerves cells were used as recipients of corneal transplantation with syngeneic wild-type mouse cornea donors. SM-345431 was administered subconjunctivally every 2 days while control mice received vehicle only. Mice were followed for 3 weeks and the length of regenerating nerves was measured by EGFP fluorescence and immunohistochemistry against ßIII tubulin. Cornea sensitivity was also measured by the Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer. CD31 staining was used to determine corneal neovascularization as a possible side effect of SM-345431. Regeneration of ßIII tubulin positive peripheral nerves was significantly higher in SM-345431 treated mice compared to control. Furthermore, corneal sensitivity significantly improved in the SM-345431 group by 3 weeks after transplantation. Neovascularization was limited to the peripheral cornea with no difference between SM-345431 group and control. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Subconjunctival injections of SM-345431 promoted a robust network of regenerating nerves as well as functional recovery of corneal sensation in a mouse keratoplasty model, suggesting a novel therapeutic strategy for treating neurotrophic corneal disease.

Metformin suppresses glucose-6-phosphatase expression by a complex I inhibition and AMPK activation-independent mechanism.

Metformin is widely used as a hypoglycemic agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Both metformin and rotenone, an inhibitor of respiratory chain complex I, suppressed glucose-6-phosphatase (G6pc), a rate limiting enzyme of liver glucose production, mRNA expression in a rat hepatoma cell line accompanied by a reduction of intracellular ATP concentration and an activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). When yeast NADH-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NDI1) gene was introduced into the cells, neither inhibition of ATP synthesis nor activation of AMPK was induced by these agents. Interestingly, in contrast to rotenone treatment, G6pc mRNA down-regulation was observed in the NDI1 expressing cells after metformin treatment. Since NDI1 can functionally complement the complex I under the presence of metformin or rotenone, our results indicate that metformin induces down-regulation of G6pc expression through an inhibition of complex I and an activation of AMPK-independent mechanism.

A selective Sema3A inhibitor enhances regenerative responses and functional recovery of the injured spinal cord.

Axons in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) exhibit little regeneration after injury. It has been suggested that several axonal growth inhibitors prevent CNS axonal regeneration. Recent research has demonstrated that semaphorin3A (Sema3A) is one of the major inhibitors of axonal regeneration. We identified a strong and selective inhibitor of Sema3A, SM-216289, from the fermentation broth of a fungal strain. To examine the effect of SM-216289 in vivo, we transected the spinal cord of adult rats and administered SM-216289 into the lesion site for 4 weeks. Rats treated with SM-216289 showed substantially enhanced regeneration and/or preservation of injured axons, robust Schwann cell-mediated myelination and axonal regeneration in the lesion site, appreciable decreases in apoptotic cell number and marked enhancement of angiogenesis, resulting in considerably better functional recovery. Thus, Sema3A is essential for the inhibition of axonal regeneration and other regenerative responses after spinal cord injury (SCI). These results support the possibility of using Sema3A inhibitors in the treatment of human SCI.

In vitro and in vivo characterization of a novel semaphorin 3A inhibitor, SM-216289 or xanthofulvin.

SM-216289 (xanthofulvin) isolated from the fermentation broth of a fungal strain, Penicillium sp. SPF-3059, was identified as a strong semaphorin 3A (Sema3A) inhibitor. Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse of dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro was completely abolished in the presence of SM-216289 at levels less than 2 mum (IC50 = 0.16 mum). When dorsal root ganglion explants were co-cultured with Sema3A-producing COS7 cells in a collagen gel matrix, SM-216289 enabled neurites to grow toward the COS7 cells. SM-216289 diminished the binding of Sema3A to its receptor neuropilin-1 in vitro, suggesting a direct interference of receptor-ligand association. Moreover, our data suggest that SM-216289 interacted with Sema3A directly and blocked the binding of Sema3A to its receptor. We examined the efficacy of SM-216289 in vivo using a rat olfactory nerve axotomy model, in which strong Sema3A induction has been reported around regenerating axons. The regeneration of olfactory nerves was significantly accelerated by a local administration of SM-216289 in the lesion site, suggesting the involvement of Sema3A in neural regeneration as an inhibitory factor. SM-216289 is an excellent molecular probe to investigate the function of Sema3A, in vitro and in vivo, and may be useful for the treatment of traumatic neural injuries.

Enhancement of BDNF and activated-ERK immunoreactivity in spinal motor neurons after peripheral administration of BDNF.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) shows neurotrophic effects on adult motor neurons when given systemically, But it is unknown whether systemically administered BDNF is transported to central cell bodies to affect them directly. Here we used immunohistochemistry to investigate the transport of peripherally injected BDNF to spinal motor neurons and the subsequent activation of a signaling pathway. We first injected BDNF into the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) and analyzed the motor nucleus that projects to the FDB for BDNF immunoreactivity (BDNF-ir) and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 immunoreactivity (pERK1/2-ir). Both immunoreactivities were observed in the motor neuron cell bodies. Next, BDNF was injected subcutaneously (s.c.) into rats with a unilaterally axotomized sciatic nerve. pERK1/2-ir was detected in motor neurons of the lesioned side. BDNF-ir and pERK1/2-ir were also observed on the unlesioned side when a high dose of BDNF was injected. Therefore, we examined BDNF-ir and pERK1/2-ir after injecting BDNF s.c. into normal rats. Both immunoreactivities were observed in motor nuclei on both sides. Finally, we examined pERK1/2-ir after a lower dose of BDNF was injected, which prevents the decrease in choline acetyl transferase that occurs in the motor neuron upon axotomy. Spinal motor nuclei contained a few cell bodies with pERK1/2-ir. These findings represent the first direct evidence that subcutaneously injected BDNF is transported to motor neurons and that it activates a signaling pathway in the spinal cord and exhibits neurotrophic effects in vivo.