Thrombalexin: Use of a Cytotopic Anticoagulant to Reduce Thrombotic Microangiopathy in a Highly Sensitized Model of Kidney Transplantation.

Early activation of coagulation is an important factor in the initiation of innate immunity, as characterized by thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). In transplantation, systemic anticoagulation is difficult due to bleeding. A novel "cytotopic" agent, thrombalexin (TLN), combines a cell-membrane-bound (myristoyl tail) anti-thrombin (hirudin-like peptide [HLL]), which can be perfused directly to the donor organ or cells. Thromboelastography was used to measure time to clot formation (r-time) in both rhesus and human blood, comparing TLN versus HLL (without cytotopic tail) versus negative control. Both TLN- and HLL-treated rhesus or human whole blood result in significantly prolonged r-time compared to kaolin controls. Only TLN-treated human endothelial cells and neonatal porcine islets prolonged time to clot formation. Detection of membrane-bound TLN was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and fluorescence activated cell sorter. In vivo, perfusion of a nonhuman primate kidney TLN-supplemented preservation solution in a sensitized model of transplantation demonstrated no evidence of TLN systemically. Histologically, TLN was shown to be present up to 4 days after transplantation. There was no platelet deposition, and TMA severity, as well as microvascular injury scores (glomerulitis + peritubular capillaritis), were less in the TLN-treated animals. Despite promising evidence of localized efficacy, no survival benefit was demonstrated.

Rapamycin Interferes With Postdepletion Regulatory T Cell Homeostasis and Enhances DSA Formation Corrected by CTLA4-Ig.

Previously, we demonstrated that alemtuzumab induction with rapamycin as sole maintenance therapy is associated with an increased incidence of humoral rejection in human kidney transplant patients. To investigate the role of rapamycin in posttransplant humoral responses after T cell depletion, fully MHC mismatched hearts were transplanted into hCD52Tg mice, followed by alemtuzumab treatment with or without a short course of rapamycin. While untreated hCD52Tg recipients acutely rejected B6 hearts (n = 12), hCD52Tg recipients treated with alemtuzumab alone or in conjunction with rapamycin showed a lack of acute rejection (MST > 100). However, additional rapamycin showed a reduced beating quality over time and increased incidence of vasculopathy. Furthermore, rapamycin supplementation showed an increased serum donor-specific antibodies (DSA) level compared to alemtuzumab alone at postoperation days 50 and 100. Surprisingly, additional rapamycin treatment significantly reduced CD4(+) CD25(+) FoxP3(+) T reg cell numbers during treatment. On the contrary, ICOS(+) PD-1(+) CD4 follicular helper T cells in the lymph nodes were significantly increased. Interestingly, CTLA4-Ig supplementation in conjunction with rapamycin corrected rapamycin-induced accelerated posttransplant humoral response by directly modulating Tfh cells but not Treg cells. This suggests that rapamycin after T cell depletion could affect Treg cells leading to an increase of Tfh cells and DSA production that can be reversed by CTLA4-Ig.

Antibody-Mediated Rejection in Sensitized Nonhuman Primates: Modeling Human Biology.

We have established a model of sensitization in nonhuman primates and tested two immunosuppressive regimens. Animals underwent fully mismatched skin transplantation, and donor-specific antibody (DSA) response was monitored by flow cross-match. Sensitized animals subsequently underwent kidney transplantation from their skin donor. Immunosuppression included tacrolimus, mycophenolate, and methylprednisolone. Three animals received basiliximab induction; compared with nonsensitized animals, they showed a shorter mean survival time (4.7 ± 3.1 vs. 187 ± 88 days). Six animals were treated with T cell depletion (anti-CD4/CD8 mAbs), which prolonged survival (mean survival time 21.6 ± 19.0 days). All presensitized animals showed antibody-mediated rejection (AMR). In two of three basiliximab-injected animals, cellular rejection (ACR) was prominent. After T cell depletion, three of six monkeys experienced early acute rejection within 8 days with histological evidence of thrombotic microangiopathy and AMR. The remaining three monkeys survived 27-44 days, with mixed AMR and ACR. Most T cell-depleted animals experienced a rebound of DSA that correlated with deteriorating kidney function. We also found an increase in proliferating memory B cells (CD20(+) CD27(+) IgD(-) Ki67(+) ), lymph node follicular helper T cells (ICOS(+) PD-1(hi) CXCR5(+) CD4(+) ), and germinal center (GC) response. Depletion controlled cell-mediated rejection in sensitized nonhuman primates better than basiliximab, yet grafts were rejected with concomitant DSA rise. This model provides an opportunity to test novel desensitization strategies.

Neutralizing BAFF/APRIL with atacicept prevents early DSA formation and AMR development in T cell depletion induced nonhuman primate AMR model.

Depletional strategies directed toward achieving tolerance induction in organ transplantation have been associated with an increased incidence and risk of antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) and graft injury. Our clinical data suggest correlation of increased serum B cell activating factor/survival factor (BAFF) with increased risk of antibody-mediated rejection in alemtuzumab treated patients. In the present study, we tested the ability of BAFF blockade (TACI-Ig) in a nonhuman primate AMR model to prevent alloantibody production and prolong allograft survival. Three animals received the AMR inducing regimen (CD3-IT/alefacept/tacrolimus) with TACI-Ig (atacicept), compared to five control animals treated with the AMR inducing regimen only. TACI-Ig treatment lead to decreased levels of DSA in treated animals at 2 and 4 weeks posttransplantation (p < 0.05). In addition, peripheral B cell numbers were significantly lower at 6 weeks posttransplantation. However, it provided only a marginal increase in graft survival (59 ± 22 vs. 102 ± 47 days; p = 0.11). Histological analysis revealed a substantial reduction in findings typically associated with humoral rejection with atacicept treatment. More T cell rejection findings were observed with increased graft T cell infiltration in atacicept treatment, likely secondary to the graft prolongation. We show that BAFF/APRIL blockade using concomitant TACI-Ig treatment reduced the humoral portion of rejection in our depletion-induced preclinical AMR model.

Costimulation blockade alters germinal center responses and prevents antibody-mediated rejection.

De novo donor-specific antibody (DSA) after organ transplantation promotes antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) and causes late graft loss. Previously, we demonstrated that depletion using anti-CD3 immunotoxin combined with tacrolimus and alefacept (AMR regimen) reliably induced early DSA production with AMR in a nonhuman primate kidney transplant model. Five animals were assigned as positive AMR controls, four received additional belatacept and four received additional anti-CD40 mAb (2C10R4). Notably, production of early de novo DSA was completely attenuated with additional belatacept or 2C10R4 treatment. In accordance with this, while positive controls experienced a decrease in peripheral IgM(+) B cells, bela- and 2C10R4-added groups maintained a predominant population of IgM(+) B cells, potentially indicating decreased isotype switching. Central memory T cells (CD4(+) CD28(+) CD95(+)) as well as PD-1(hi) CD4(+) T cells were decreased in both bela-added and 2C10R4-added groups. In analyzing germinal center (GC) reactions in situ, lymph nodes further revealed a reduction of B cell clonal expansion, GC-follicular helper T (Tfh) cells, and IL-21 production inside GCs with additional belatacept or 2C10R4 treatment. Here we provide evidence that belatacept and 2C10R4 selectively suppresses the humoral response via regulating Tfh cells and prevents AMR in this nonhuman primate model.

Patterns of de novo allo B cells and antibody formation in chronic cardiac allograft rejection after alemtuzumab treatment.

Even though the etiology of chronic rejection (CR) is multifactorial, donor specific antibody (DSA) is considered to have a causal effect on CR development. Currently the antibody-mediated mechanisms during CR are poorly understood due to lack of proper animal models and tools. In a clinical setting, we previously demonstrated that induction therapy by lymphocyte depletion, using alemtuzumab (anti-human CD52), is associated with an increased incidence of serum alloantibody, C4d deposition and antibody-mediated rejection in human patients. In this study, the effects of T cell depletion in the development of antibody-mediated rejection were examined using human CD52 transgenic (CD52Tg) mice treated with alemtuzumab. Fully mismatched cardiac allografts were transplanted into alemtuzumab treated CD52Tg mice and showed no acute rejection while untreated recipients acutely rejected their grafts. However, approximately half of long-term recipients showed increased degree of vasculopathy, fibrosis and perivascular C3d depositions at posttransplant day 100. The development of CR correlated with DSA and C3d deposition in the graft. Using novel tracking tools to monitor donor-specific B cells, alloreactive B cells were shown to increase in accordance with DSA detection. The current animal model could provide a means of testing strategies to understand mechanisms and developing therapeutic approaches to prevent chronic rejection.

Enhanced de novo alloantibody and antibody-mediated injury in rhesus macaques.

Chronic allograft rejection is a major impediment to long-term transplant success. Humoral immune responses to alloantigens are a growing clinical problem in transplantation, with mounting evidence associating alloantibodies with the development of chronic rejection. Nearly a third of transplant recipients develop de novo antibodies, for which no established therapies are effective at preventing or eliminating, highlighting the need for a nonhuman primate model of antibody-mediated rejection. In this report, we demonstrate that depletion using anti-CD3 immunotoxin (IT) combined with maintenance immunosuppression that included tacrolimus with or without alefacept reliably prolonged renal allograft survival in rhesus monkeys. In these animals, a preferential skewing toward CD4 repopulation and proliferation was observed, particularly with the addition of alefacept. Furthermore, alefacept-treated animals demonstrated increased alloantibody production (100%) and morphologic features of antibody-mediated injury. In vitro, alefacept was found to enhance CD4 effector memory T cell proliferation. In conclusion, alefacept administration after depletion and with tacrolimus promotes a CD4+memory T cell and alloantibody response, with morphologic changes reflecting antibody-mediated allograft injury. Early and consistent de novo alloantibody production with associated histological changes makes this nonhuman primate model an attractive candidate for evaluating targeted therapeutics.

BAFF is increased in renal transplant patients following treatment with alemtuzumab.

Alemtuzumab is a monoclonal antibody that depletes T and B cells and is used as induction therapy for renal transplant recipients. Without long-term calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) therapy, alemtuzumab-treated patients have a propensity to develop alloantibody and may undergo antibody-mediated rejection (AMR). In pursuit of a mechanistic explanation, we analyzed peripheral B cells and serum of these patients for BAFF (Blys) and BAFF-R, factors known to be integral for B-cell activation, survival, and homeostasis. Serum BAFF levels of 22/24 alemtuzumab-treated patients were above normal range, with average levels of 1967 pg/mL compared to 775 pg/mL in healthy controls (p = 0.006). BAFF remained elevated 2 years posttransplant in 78% of these patients. BAFF-R on CD19(+) B cells was significantly downregulated, suggesting ligand/receptor engagement. BAFF mRNA expression was increased 2-7-fold in CD14(+) cells of depleted patients, possibly linking monocytes to the BAFF dysregulation. Addition of recombinant BAFF to mixed lymphocyte cultures increased B-cell activation to alloantigen, as measured by CD25 and CD69 coexpression on CD19(+) cells. Of note, addition of sirolimus (SRL) augmented BAFF-enhanced B-cell activation whereas CNIs blocked it. These data suggest associations between BAFF/BAFF-R and AMR in alemtuzumab-treated patients.

Early and limited use of tacrolimus to avoid rejection in an alemtuzumab and sirolimus regimen for kidney transplantation: clinical results and immune monitoring.

Alemtuzumab induction with 60 days of tacrolimus treatment and continuous sirolimus treatment prevented acute rejection in nine of 10 consecutive renal allograft recipients. All patients are alive with a functioning kidney graft at 27-39 months of follow-up. Extensive immune monitoring was performed in all patients. Alloantibody detection, cytokine kinetics assay (CKA), and trans vivo delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) assay were performed every 6 months showing correlation with clinical evolution. Despite alloantibody presence in five patients, eight patients remain without the need for specific treatment and only sirolimus monotherapy in decreasing dosage. Four patients take only 1 mg sirolimus daily with levels of 3-4 ng/mL. One patient showed clinical signs of rejection at month 9 post-transplant, with slow increase in serum creatinine and histological signs of mixed cellular (endarteritis) and humoral rejection (C4d positivity in peritubular capillaries and donor-specific antibody (DSA)). In summary, the addition of tacrolimus therapy for 2 months to a steroid-free, alemtuzumab induction and sirolimus maintenance protocol limited the previously shown acute rejection development. Nevertheless, alloantibody was present in serum and/or C4d present on 1-year biopsy in half the patients. The combination of CKA and DSA monitoring or the performance of transvivo DTH correlated with immune status of the patients.

Unaltered graft survival and intragraft lymphocytes infiltration in the cardiac allograft of Cxcr3-/- mouse recipients.

Previous studies showed that absence of chemokine receptor Cxcr3 or its blockade prolong mouse cardiac allograft survival. We evaluated the effect of the CXCR3 receptor antagonist MRL-957 on cardiac allograft survival, and also examined the impact of anti-CXCR3 mAb in human CXCR3 knock-in mice. We found only a moderate increase in graft survival (10.5 and 16.6 days, p < 0.05) using either the antagonist or the antibody, respectively, compared to control (8.7 days). We re-evaluated cardiac allograft survival with two different lines of Cxcr3(-/-) mice. Interestingly, in our hands, neither of the independently derived Cxcr3(-/-) lines showed remarkable prolongation, with mean graft survival of 9.5 and 10.8 days, respectively. There was no difference in the number of infiltrating mononuclear cells, expansion of splenic T cells or IFN-gamma production of alloreactive T cells. Mechanistically, an increased other chemokine receptor fraction in the graft infiltrating CD8 T cells in Cxcr3(-/-) recipients compared to wild-type recipients suggested compensatory T-cell trafficking in the absence of Cxcr3. We conclude Cxcr3 may contribute to, but does not govern, leukocyte trafficking in this transplant model.

Receptor selectivity of Met-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7, an endogenous opioid peptide, in cerebral cortex of human and rat.

This study was undertaken to examine the receptor selectivity of Met-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7 (MERF) employing radioreceptor binding assays in human cerebral cortex membranes, and to elucidate the responsible receptors that mediate the regulatory action of MERF on high (20 mM) K+-stimulated release of [3H]norepinephrine ([3H]-NE) in rat cortex slices. Specific binding of [3H]MERF was inhibited by DAMGO, Tyr-D-Arg-Phe-Sar(TAPS), bremazocine and ethylketocyclazocine (EKC), but not by U69,593 (U69) and DPDPE. MERF showed high affinity for specific binding sites of [3H]DAMGO. However, MERF had little influence on the specific binding of [3H]DPDPE, [3H]U69 and [3H]diprenorphine ([3H]DIP) in the presence of 1 microM each of DAMGO, DPDPE and U69. In [3H]NE release experiments using rat cortex slices, DAMGO, MERF and EKC, in order of their potency, inhibited K+-stimulated release of [3H]NE. The inhibitory effects of MERF and DAMGO were more sensitive than that of EKC to antagonism by CTAP, nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) and naloxone. These results suggested that MERF possesses high affinity for mu-receptors, but not for delta-, kappa1-, and very low affinity for kappa2-receptors in human cerebral cortex membranes. Also, the inhibitory effect of MERF on the K+-stimulated release of [3H]NE appears to be mediated by mu-receptors in rat cerebral cortex slices.

The concentration of the 35-kDa surfactant apoprotein in amniotic fluid from normal and diabetic pregnancies.

A specific, enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay was used to determine the concentration of the 35,000 mol wt surfactant apoprotein (SP-A) in samples of amniotic fluid obtained from nondiabetic (n = 358) and diabetic (n = 29) women. The enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay was performed with rabbit antibodies directed against SP-A present in lavage fluid from a patient with alveolar proteinosis. Amniotic fluid SP-A concentrations increased as a function of gestational age, from less than 3 micrograms/ml at 30-31 wk to 24 micrograms/ml at 40-41 wk, and were positively correlated with the lecithin to sphingomyelin ratio (p less than 0.01). SP-A concentrations also increased as a function of gestational age in shake test positive samples (p less than 0.05), but were unchanged in shake test-negative samples. There was no difference in the surfactant apoprotein concentration of male compared with female fetuses at any gestational age. In amniotic fluid obtained from 20 diabetic women, SP-A levels were significantly less than in nondiabetic pregnancies that were matched for gestational age and sex of the fetus (p less than 0.05). The SP-A concentrations in amniotic fluids obtained from nine women who were diabetic and hypertensive and from 10 hypertensive women were not different from matched controls. The relationships described above were valid whether the SP-A concentration was expressed per mg protein or per ml amniotic fluid. These data are suggestive that the concentration of amniotic fluid SP-A is decreased in diabetic pregnancies.

Further observations on hormonal support of pregnancy in the ovariectomized rabbit.

While the necessity for progesterone administration throughout pregnancy in the ovariectomized rabbit is not questioned, the roles of 20alpha-dihydroprogesterone and oestradiol are still in doubt. 20alpha-dihydroprogesterone was shown to be a weak inducer of implantation with less than one-tenth the potency of progesterone. The significance of its high level of production on the day after mating remains obscure. In combination with the earlier results of Kwun and Emmens (1974), further work with oestradiol suggests that at no stage is it clearly needed for successful maintenance of pregnancy. However, in low doses (0.125-0.2 mug/day prior to implantation, 0.2 rising to 1.6 mug, or remaining at 0.2 mug/day thereafter) it produced slight but sometimes significant improvements in implantation and foetal development percentages. Birth processes were abnormal if progesterone injections were continued beyond day 29. Foetuses were most frequently retained in utero or born dead after a somewhat prolonged pregnancy. The cessation of injections on day 29, whether or not a low dosage of 0.2 mug of oestradiol per day were continued, resulted in 94-98% normal parturition, but the percentage of live births was still significantly below that of controls unless oestradiol was given.