Transfer of the Septin Ring to Cytokinetic Remnants in ER Stress Directs Age-Sensitive Cell-Cycle Re-entry.

During cell division, the inheritance of a functional endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is ensured by the endoplasmic reticulum stress surveillance (ERSU) pathway. Activation of ERSU causes the septin ring to mislocalize, which blocks ER inheritance and cytokinesis. Here, we uncover that the septin ring in fact translocates to previously utilized cell division sites called cytokinetic remnants (CRMs). This unconventional translocation requires Nba1, a negative polarity regulator that normally prevents repolarization and re-budding at CRMs. Furthermore, septin ring translocation relies on the recruitment and activation of a key ERSU component Slt2 by Bem1, without activating Cdc42. Failure to transfer all septin subunits to CRMs delays the cell's ability to re-enter the cell cycle when ER homeostasis is restored and hinders cell growth after ER stress recovery. Thus, these deliberate but unprecedented rearrangements of cell polarity factors during ER stress safeguard cell survival and the timely cell-cycle re-entry upon ER stress recovery.

Systemic signaling contributes to the unfolded protein response of the plant endoplasmic reticulum.

The unfolded protein response (UPR) of the endoplasmic reticulum constitutes a conserved and essential cytoprotective pathway designed to survive biotic and abiotic stresses that alter the proteostasis of the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR is typically considered cell-autonomous and it is yet unclear whether it can also act systemically through non-cell autonomous signaling. We have addressed this question using a genetic approach coupled with micro-grafting and a suite of molecular reporters in the model plant species Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that the UPR has a non-cell autonomous component, and we demonstrate that this is partially mediated by the intercellular movement of the UPR transcription factor bZIP60 facilitating systemic UPR signaling. Therefore, in multicellular eukaryotes such as plants, non-cell autonomous UPR signaling relies on the systemic movement of at least a UPR transcriptional modulator.

Salicylic acid-independent role of NPR1 is required for protection from proteotoxic stress in the plant endoplasmic reticulum.

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an ancient signaling pathway designed to protect cells from the accumulation of unfolded and misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Because misregulation of the UPR is potentially lethal, a stringent surveillance signaling system must be in place to modulate the UPR. The major signaling arms of the plant UPR have been discovered and rely on the transcriptional activity of the transcription factors bZIP60 and bZIP28 and on the kinase and ribonuclease activity of IRE1, which splices mRNA to activate bZIP60. Both bZIP28 and bZIP60 modulate UPR gene expression to overcome ER stress. In this study, we demonstrate at a genetic level that the transcriptional role of bZIP28 and bZIP60 in ER-stress responses is antagonized by nonexpressor of PR1 genes 1 (NPR1), a critical redox-regulated master regulator of salicylic acid (SA)-dependent responses to pathogens, independently of its role in SA defense. We also establish that the function of NPR1 in the UPR is concomitant with ER stress-induced reduction of the cytosol and translocation of NPR1 to the nucleus where it interacts with bZIP28 and bZIP60. Our results support a cellular role for NPR1 as well as a model for plant UPR regulation whereby SA-independent ER stress-induced redox activation of NPR1 suppresses the transcriptional role of bZIP28 and bZIP60 in the UPR.

Recovery from temporary endoplasmic reticulum stress in plants relies on the tissue-specific and largely independent roles of bZIP28 and bZIP60, as well as an antagonizing function of BAX-Inhibitor 1 upon the pro-adaptive signaling mediated by bZIP28.

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an ancient signaling pathway that commits to life-or-death outcomes in response to proteotoxic stress in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In plants, the membrane-tethered transcription factor bZIP28 and the ribonuclease-kinase IRE1 along with its splicing target, bZIP60, govern the two cytoprotective UPR signaling pathways known to date. The conserved ER membrane-associated BAX inhibitor 1 (BI1) modulates ER stress-induced programmed cell death through yet-unknown mechanisms. Despite the significance of the UPR for cell homeostasis, in plants the regulatory circuitry underlying ER stress resolution is still largely unmapped. To gain insights into the coordination of plant UPR strategies, we analyzed the functional relationship of the UPR modulators through the analysis of single and higher order mutants of IRE1, bZIP60, bZIP28 and BI1 in experimental conditions causing either temporary or chronic ER stress. We established a functional duality of bZIP28 and bZIP60, as they exert partially independent tissue-specific roles in recovery from ER stress, but redundantly actuate survival strategies in chronic ER stress. We also discovered that BI1 attenuates the pro-survival function of bZIP28 in ER stress resolution and, differently to animal cells, it does not temper the ribonuclease activity of inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) under temporary ER stress. Together these findings reveal a functional independence of bZIP28 and bZIP60 in plant UPR, and identify an antagonizing role of BI1 in the pro-adaptive signaling mediated by bZIP28, bringing to light the distinctive complexity of the unfolded protein response (UPR) in plants.

ER network homeostasis is critical for plant endosome streaming and endocytosis.

Eukaryotic cells internalize cargo at the plasma membrane via endocytosis, a vital process that is accomplished through a complex network of endosomal organelles. In mammalian cells, the ER is in close association with endosomes and regulates their fission. Nonetheless, the physiological role of such interaction on endocytosis is yet unexplored. Here, we probed the existence of ER-endosome association in plant cells and assayed its physiological role in endocytosis. Through live-cell imaging and electron microscopy studies, we established that endosomes are extensively associated with the plant ER, supporting conservation of interaction between heterotypic organelles in evolutionarily distant kingdoms. Furthermore, by analyzing ER-endosome dynamics in genetic backgrounds with defects in ER structure and movement, we also established that the ER network integrity is necessary for homeostasis of the distribution and streaming of various endosome populations as well as for efficient endocytosis. These results support a novel model that endocytosis homeostasis depends on a spatiotemporal control of the endosome dynamics dictated by the ER membrane network.

ER stress signaling requires RHD3, a functionally conserved ER-shaping GTPase.

Whether structure and function are correlated features of organelles is a fundamental question in cell biology. Here, we have assessed the ability of Arabidopsis mutants with a defective endoplasmic reticulum (ER) structure to invoke the unfolded protein response (UPR), an essential ER signaling pathway. Through molecular and genetic approaches, we show that loss of the ER-shaping GTPase Root Hair Defective 3 (RHD3) specifically disrupts the UPR by interfering with the mRNA splicing function of the master regulator IRE1. These findings establish a new role for RHD3 in the ER and support specificity of the effects of ER-shaping mutations on ER function.

Phospholipid biosynthesis increases in RHD3-defective mutants.

RHD3, a member of the ER-shaping dynamin-like GTPases, is required in the transition from a cisternal to a tubular ER architecture during cell growth. The aberrant ER morphology in rhd3 mutants may be correlated with alterations of the ER lipid bilayer. We analyzed the lipid fraction of rhd3 mutants at qualitative and quantitative levels. We observed an increase of the amount of phospholipids but also of proteins in the mutants, indicating an overall increase of ER membranes. This increase may indicate that phospholipid biosynthesis is deregulated in rhd3 mutants. It was shown that overexpression of PIS1 and PIS2 (involved in phosphatidylinositol biosynthesis) induces the synthesis of phosphatidylinositol (PI) but also of phosphatidic acid and that overexpression of PIS1 also induces the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine and diacylglycerol. (1) We wondered whether PIS1 or PIS2 could be linked to the increase of the amount of phospholipids in rhd3 mutants. To answer, we measured the phospholipid composition in the double mutants rhd3-7/pis1 and rhd3-7/pis2. The phospholipid increase in the rhd3 mutant was compensated in rhd3-7/pis1 but not rhd3-7/pis2. Our results suggest a possible deregulation of PIS1 in the rhd3 mutant.

PHO2-dependent degradation of PHO1 modulates phosphate homeostasis in Arabidopsis.

The Arabidopsis thaliana pho2 mutant, which is defective in a ubiquitin-conjugating E2 enzyme, displays inorganic phosphate (Pi) toxicity as a result of enhanced uptake and root-to-shoot translocation of Pi. To elucidate downstream components of the PHO2-dependent regulatory pathway, we identified two pho2 suppressors as carrying missense mutations in PHO1, which has been implicated in Pi loading to the xylem. In support of the genetic interaction between PHO1 and PHO2, we found that the protein level of PHO1 is increased in pho2, whereas such accumulation is ameliorated in both pho2 suppressors. Results from cycloheximide and endosomal Cys protease inhibitor E-64d treatments further suggest that PHO1 degradation is PHO2 dependent and involves multivesicular body-mediated vacuolar proteolysis. Using the transient expression system of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves, we demonstrated that PHO1 and PHO2 are partially colocalized and physically interact in the endomembranes, where the ubiquitin conjugase activity of PHO2 is required for PHO1 degradation. In addition, reduced PHO1 expression caused by PHO1 mutations impede Pi uptake, indicating a functional association between xylem loading and acquisition of Pi. Together, our findings uncover a pivotal molecular mechanism by which PHO2 modulates the degradation of PHO1 in the endomembranes to maintain Pi homeostasis in plants.