Astrocytic NMDA Receptors.

Astrocytic NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are heterotetramers, whose expression and properties are largely determined by their subunit composition. Astrocytic NMDARs are characterized by a low sensitivity to magnesium ions and low calcium conductivity. Their activation plays an important role in the regulation of various intracellular processes, such as gene expression and mitochondrial function. Astrocytic NMDARs are involved in calcium signaling in astrocytes and can act through the ionotropic and metabotropic pathways. Astrocytic NMDARs participate in the interactions of the neuroglia, thus affecting synaptic plasticity. They are also engaged in the astrocyte-vascular interactions and contribute to the regulation of vascular tone. Astrocytic NMDARs are involved in various pathologies, such as ischemia and hyperammonemia, and their blockade prevents negative changes in astrocytes during these diseases.

The Role of Ion Channels and Intracellular Signaling Cascades in the Inhibitory Action of WIN 55,212-2 upon Hyperexcitation.

Gi-coupled receptors, particularly cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), are considered perspective targets for treating brain pathologies, including epilepsy. However, the precise mechanism of the anticonvulsant effect of the CBR agonists remains unknown. We have found that WIN 55,212-2 (a CBR agonist) suppresses the synchronous oscillations of the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ions (epileptiform activity) induced in the neurons of rat hippocampal neuron-glial cultures by bicuculline or NH4Cl. As we have demonstrated, the WIN 55,212-2 effect is mediated by CB1R receptors. The agonist suppresses Ca2+ inflow mediated by the voltage-gated calcium channels but does not alter the inflow mediated by NMDA, AMPA, and kainate receptors. We have also found that phospholipase C (PLC), protein kinase C (PKC), and G-protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ channels (GIRK channels) are involved in the molecular mechanism underlying the inhibitory action of CB1R activation against epileptiform activity. Thus, our results demonstrate that the antiepileptic action of CB1R agonists is mediated by different intracellular signaling cascades, including non-canonical PLC/PKC-associated pathways.

Peculiarities of ion homeostasis in neurons containing calcium-permeable AMPA receptors.

Glutamate excitotoxicity accompanies numerous brain pathologies, including traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, and epilepsy. Disturbances of the ion homeostasis, mitochondria dysfunction, and further cell death are considered the main detrimental consequences of excitotoxicity. It is well known that neurons demonstrate different vulnerability to pathological exposures. In this regard, neurons containing calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) may show higher susceptibility to excitotoxicity due to an additional pathway of Ca2+ influx. Here, we demonstrate that neurons containing CP-AMPARs are characterized by the higher amplitude of the glutamate-induced elevation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and slower restoration of [Ca2+]i level compared to non-CP-AMPA neurons. Moreover, we have found that NASPM, an antagonist of CP-AMPARs, significantly decreases the amplitude of the [Ca2+]i elevation induced by glutamate or selective AMPARs agonist, 5-fluorowillardiine. In contrast, the antagonists of NMDARs or KARs affect insignificantly. We have also described some peculiarities of Na+, K+, and H+ intracellular dynamics in neurons containing CP-AMPARs. In particular, the amplitude of [Na+]i elevation was lower compared to non-CP-AMPA neurons, whereas the amplitude of [K+]i decrease was higher. We have shown the significant inverse correlation between [K+]i and [Ca2+]i and between intracellular pH and [Na+]i in CP-AMPARs-containing and non-CP-AMPA neurons upon glutamate excitotoxicity. Our data indicate that CP-AMPARs-mediated Ca2+ influx and slow removal of Ca2+ from the cytosol may underlie the vulnerability of the CP-AMPARs-containing neurons to glutamate excitotoxicity. Further studies of the mechanisms mediating the disturbances in ion homeostasis are crucial for developing new approaches for protecting these neurons at brain pathologies.

Of the Mechanisms of Paroxysmal Depolarization Shifts: Generation and Maintenance of Bicuculline-Induced Paroxysmal Activity in Rat Hippocampal Cell Cultures.

Abnormal depolarization of neuronal membranes called paroxysmal depolarization shift (PDS) represents a cellular correlate of interictal spikes. The mechanisms underlying the generation of PDSs or PDS clusters remain obscure. This study aimed to investigate the role of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) in the generation of PDS and dependence of the PDS pattern on neuronal membrane potential. We have shown that significant depolarization or hyperpolarization (by more than ±50 mV) of a single neuron does not change the number of individual PDSs in the cluster, indicating the involvement of an external stimulus in PDS induction. Based on this data, we have suggested reliable protocols for stimulating single PDS or PDS clusters. Furthermore, we have found that AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid) receptors are necessary for PDS generation since AMPAR antagonist NBQX completely suppresses bicuculline-induced paroxysmal activity. In turn, antagonists of NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate receptors (D-AP5 and UBP310, respectively) caused a decrease in the amplitude of the first action potential in PDSs and in the amplitude of the oscillations of intracellular Ca2+ concentration occurring alongside the PDS cluster generation. The effects of the NMDAR (NMDA receptor) and KAR (kainate receptor) antagonists indicate that these receptors are involved only in the modulation of paroxysmal activity. We have also shown that agonists of some Gi-coupled receptors, such as A1 adenosine (A1Rs) or cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) (N6-cyclohexyladenosine and WIN 55,212-2, respectively), completely suppressed PDS generation, while the A1R agonist even prevented it. We hypothesized that the dynamics of extracellular glutamate concentration govern paroxysmal activity. Fine-tuning of neuronal activity via action on Gi-coupled receptors or iGluRs paves the way for the development of new approaches for epilepsy pharmacotherapy.

A novel approach for vital visualization and studying of neurons containing Ca2+ -permeable AMPA receptors.

Calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) play a pivotal role in brain functioning in health and disease. They are involved in synaptic plasticity, synaptogenesis, and neuronal circuits development. However, the functions of neurons expressing CP-AMPARs and their role in the modulation of network activity remain elusive since reliable and accurate visualization methods are absent. Here we developed an approach allowing the vital identification of neurons containing CP-AMPARs. The proposed method relies on evaluating Ca2+ influx in neurons during activation of AMPARs in the presence of NMDAR and KAR antagonists, and blockers of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Using this method, we studied the properties of CP-AMPARs-containing neurons. We showed that the overwhelming majority of neurons containing CP-AMPARs are GABAergic, and they are distinguished by higher amplitudes of the calcium responses to applications of the agonists. Furthermore, about 30% of CP-AMPARs-containing neurons demonstrate the presence of GluK1-containing KARs. Although CP-AMPARs-containing neurons are characterized by more significant Ca2+ influx during the activation of AMPARs than other neurons, AMPAR-mediated Na+ influx is similar in these two groups. We revealed that neurons containing CP-AMPARs demonstrate weak GABA(A)R-mediated inhibition because of the low percentage of GABAergic synapses on the soma of these cells. However, our data show that weak GABA(A)R-mediated inhibition is inherent to all GABAergic neurons in the culture and cannot be considered a unique feature of CP-AMPARs-containing neurons. We believe that the suggested approach will help to understand the role of CP-AMPARs in the mammalian nervous system in more detail.

Role of L-Type Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels in Epileptiform Activity of Neurons.

Epileptic discharges manifest in individual neurons as abnormal membrane potential fluctuations called paroxysmal depolarization shift (PDS). PDSs can combine into clusters that are accompanied by synchronous oscillations of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in neurons. Here, we investigate the contribution of L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC) to epileptiform activity induced in cultured hippocampal neurons by GABA(A)R antagonist, bicuculline. Using KCl-induced depolarization, we determined the optimal effective doses of the blockers. Dihydropyridines (nifedipine and isradipine) at concentrations ≤ 10 µM demonstrate greater selectivity than the blockers from other groups (phenylalkylamines and benzothiazepines). However, high doses of dihydropyridines evoke an irreversible increase in [Ca2+]i in neurons and astrocytes. In turn, verapamil and diltiazem selectively block L-type VGCC in the range of 1-10 µM, whereas high doses of these drugs block other types of VGCC. We show that L-type VGCC blockade decreases the half-width and amplitude of bicuculline-induced [Ca2+]i oscillations. We also observe a decrease in the number of PDSs in a cluster and cluster duration. However, the pattern of individual PDSs and the frequency of the cluster occurrence change insignificantly. Thus, our results demonstrate that L-type VGCC contributes to maintaining the required [Ca2+]i level during oscillations, which appears to determine the number of PDSs in the cluster.

Domoic acid suppresses hyperexcitation in the network due to activation of kainate receptors of GABAergic neurons.

Kainate receptors play an important role in the brain. They contribute to postsynaptic depolarization, modulate the release of neurotransmitters such as GABA and glutamate, affect the development of the neuronal network. At the same time, their functions depend not only on the type of neuron expressing them but also on their localization (pre- or postsynaptic). It has been shown in present work that activation of kainate receptors by domoic acid stimulates the secretion of both glutamate and GABA. This effect is observed at a concentration of 100 nM. At higher levels (200-500 nM), domoic acid selectively activates a specific population of GABAergic neurons. The peculiarity of these neurons is increased excitability in the network. This phenomenon can be explained by the weak GABA(A)R-mediated inhibition, as well as by the lower activation threshold of voltage-gated channels. Moreover, activation of these GABAergic neurons by domoic acid leads to the suppression of activity in the network under ammonium-induced hyperexcitation. As shown by inhibitory analysis, this effect is mediated by GABA(A) receptors. The obtained data may be of interest since the suppression of hyperexcitation via the selective activation of GABAergic neurons can be considered as a new potential approach to the treatment of diseases accompanied by increased neuronal activity such as epilepsy, ischemia and hepatic encephalopathy.