RADON INHALATION EXPERIMENTS TO TEST RADON EXHALATION KINETICS.

Three experiments were conducted with a volunteer to test the kinetics of the 222Rn exhalation after a short-time exposure to an elevated 222Rn air concentration. Radon concentration in an exhaled air was measured, complemented by whole body counting of 222Rn decay products in a body. Exhaled activities are compared with the prediction of the recent ICRP biokinetic model for radon. While a rapid equilibration of the exhaled radon activity concentration with that in the air inhaled corresponded with the model, the measured 222Rn exhalation rate was significantly less than modelled. Five hours after termination of the inhalation phase, the radon concentration in the exhaled air decreased to levels expected for non-elevated indoor radon activity concentration. Whole body activities of the 222Rn decay products were found higher than expected. Inhalation of the unattached fraction or residual activity of decay products in the air inhaled may be the explanation.

Eurados review of retrospective dosimetry techniques for internal exposures to ionising radiation and their applications.

This work presents an overview of the applications of retrospective dosimetry techniques in case of incorporation of radionuclides. The fact that internal exposures are characterized by a spatially inhomogeneous irradiation of the body, which is potentially prolonged over large periods and variable over time, is particularly problematic for biological and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) dosimetry methods when compared with external exposures. The paper gives initially specific information about internal dosimetry methods, the most common cytogenetic techniques used in biological dosimetry and EPR dosimetry applied to tooth enamel. Based on real-case scenarios, dose estimates obtained from bioassay data as well as with biological and/or EPR dosimetry are compared and critically discussed. In most of the scenarios presented, concomitant external exposures were responsible for the greater portion of the received dose. As no assay is available which can discriminate between radiation of different types and different LETs on the basis of the type of damage induced, it is not possible to infer from these studies specific conclusions valid for incorporated radionuclides alone. The biological dosimetry assays and EPR techniques proved to be most applicable in cases when the radionuclides are almost homogeneously distributed in the body. No compelling evidence was obtained in other cases of extremely inhomogeneous distribution. Retrospective dosimetry needs to be optimized and further developed in order to be able to deal with real exposure cases, where a mixture of both external and internal exposures will be encountered most of the times.

The valley system of the Jihlava river and Mohelno reservoir with enhanced tritium activities.

The Dukovany nuclear power plant (NPP Dukovany) releases liquid effluents, including HTO, to the Mohelno reservoir, located in a deep valley. Significantly enhanced tritium activities were observed in the form of non-exchangeable organically bound tritium in the surrounding biota which lacks direct contact with the water body. This indicates a tritium uptake by plants from air moisture and haze, which is, besides the uptake by roots from soil, one of the most important mechanisms of tritium transfer from environment to plants. Results of a pilot study based on four sampling campaigns in 2011-2015 are presented and discussed, with the aim to provide new information on tritium transport in the Mohelno reservoir - Jihlava River - plants ecosystems.

MONTE CARLO SIMULATION OF THE BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF AN INTERNAL CONTAMINATION WITH PURE-BETA EMITTERS IN VIVO.

Rapid measurement techniques are required for a large-scale emergency monitoring of people. In vivo measurement of the bremsstrahlung radiation produced by incorporated pure-beta emitters can offer a rapid technique for the determination of such radionuclides in the human body. This work presents a method for the calibration of spectrometers, based on the use of UPh-02T (so-called IGOR) phantom and specific (90)Sr/(90)Y sources, which can account for recent as well as previous contaminations. The process of the whole- and partial-body counter calibration in combination with application of a Monte Carlo code offers readily extension also to other pure-beta emitters and various exposure scenarios.

Enhanced activities of organically bound tritium in biota samples.

A pilot study aimed on possible occurrence of elevated activity of non-exchangable organically bound tritium (NE-OBT) in biota was performed. The first results showed a significant surplus of NE-OBT activity in biota of the valley of Mohelno reservoir and Jihlava river. The liquid releases of HTO from the nuclear power plant Dukovany is the source of tritium in this area. This area can be a source of various types of natural samples for future studies of tritium pathways.

A simple physical phantom for an intercomparison exercise on 241Am activity determination in the skull.

A simple hemispherical phantom has been designed and prepared for the EURADOS intercomparison exercise on (241)Am activity determination in the skull (2011-13). The phantom consists of three parts that substitute bone and soft tissues. (241)Am is deposited on the surfaces of the bone-substituting part. The design and assumed composition of phantom parts are discussed. A preparation of the voxel representation of the phantom is described. The spectrum of a real measurement of the physical phantom agrees well with the simulation. The physical phantom, and its voxel representation, is provided to the participants of the intercomparison exercise.

A case of occupational internal contamination with 241Am.

An internal contamination with (241)Am was detected in a worker during a routine monitoring of workers from a company producing Am sources for smoke detectors and Am-Be neutron sources. During the 4-year period after the exposure, the number of urine and faecal samples from the worker were analysed; in vivo measurements were also performed. Specific values for absorption parameters of the human respiratory tract model and particle transport values were applied to improve the model fit to the measurement data. A good agreement of the bioassay data with the so-modified model predictions was obtained.

Reassessment of individual dosimetry of long-lived alpha radionuclides of uranium miners through experimental determination of urinary excretion of uranium.

Urinary excretion of uranium of 40 uranium miners was determined by the high-resolution inductively coupled mass spectrometry method. The concentration of uranium in the urine of the miners was converted to daily excretion of (238)U either under the assumption that the daily urinary excretion is 1.6 l or daily urinary excretion of creatinine is 1.7 g and compared with the excretion of (238)U calculated with a biokinetic model. Input data to the excretion model were derived from personal three- component ALGADE dosemeters, using the component for the estimation of inhalation of long-lived alpha radionuclides. Experimentally found contents of uranium in the urine of uranium miners are generally lower than the modelled ones, which means that the dosimetric approach is conservative. The uncertainty of inhalation intakes, derived from the measurements of filters from personal dosemeters, and the uncertainty of the concentration of uranium in the urine are discussed.

Content of uranium in urine of uranium miners as a tool for estimation of intakes of long-lived alpha radionuclides.

Uranium in the urine of 10 uranium miners (hewers), 27 members of general population and 11 family members of miners was determined by the High-Resolution ICP-MS method. Concentration of uranium in urine of the miners was converted to daily excretion of (238)U under the assumption that the daily excretion of urine is 2 l and compared with the modelled excretion of (238)U. Daily excretion of (238)U was modelled using input data from personal dosemeters from a component for measurement of intake of long-lived alpha radionuclides. A reasonable agreement between evaluated and measured values was found. The uncertainty of inhalation intakes, derived from measurements of filters from personal dosemeters, and uncertainty of concentration of uranium in urine are discussed.

EURADOS coordinated action on research, quality assurance and training of internal dose assessments.

EURADOS working group on 'Internal Dosimetry (WG7)' represents a frame to develop activities in the field of internal exposures as coordinated actions on quality assurance (QA), research and training. The main tasks to carry out are the update of the IDEAS Guidelines as a reference document for the internal dosimetry community, the implementation and QA of new ICRP biokinetic models, the assessment of uncertainties related to internal dosimetry models and their application, the development of physiology-based models for biokinetics of radionuclides, stable isotope studies, biokinetic modelling of diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid decorporation therapy and Monte-Carlo applications to in vivo assessment of intakes. The working group is entirely supported by EURADOS; links are established with institutions such as IAEA, US Transuranium and Uranium Registries (USA) and CEA (France) for joint collaboration actions.

Internal dosimetry: towards harmonisation and coordination of research.

The CONRAD Project is a Coordinated Network for Radiation Dosimetry funded by the European Commission 6th Framework Programme. The activities developed within CONRAD Work Package 5 ('Coordination of Research on Internal Dosimetry') have contributed to improve the harmonisation and reliability in the assessment of internal doses. The tasks carried out included a study of uncertainties and the refinement of the IDEAS Guidelines associated with the evaluation of doses after intakes of radionuclides. The implementation and quality assurance of new biokinetic models for dose assessment and the first attempt to develop a generic dosimetric model for DTPA therapy are important WP5 achievements. Applications of voxel phantoms and Monte Carlo simulations for the assessment of intakes from in vivo measurements were also considered. A Nuclear Emergency Monitoring Network (EUREMON) has been established for the interpretation of monitoring data after accidental or deliberate releases of radionuclides. Finally, WP5 group has worked on the update of the existing IDEAS bibliographic, internal contamination and case evaluation databases. A summary of CONRAD WP5 objectives and results is presented here.

Internal dose assessments: uncertainty studies and update of ideas guidelines and databases within CONRAD project.

The work of Task Group 5.1 (uncertainty studies and revision of IDEAS guidelines) and Task Group 5.5 (update of IDEAS databases) of the CONRAD project is described. Scattering factor (SF) values (i.e. measurement uncertainties) have been calculated for different radionuclides and types of monitoring data using real data contained in the IDEAS Internal Contamination Database. Based upon this work and other published values, default SF values are suggested. Uncertainty studies have been carried out using both a Bayesian approach as well as a frequentist (classical) approach. The IDEAS guidelines have been revised in areas relating to the evaluation of an effective AMAD, guidance is given on evaluating wound cases with the NCRP wound model and suggestions made on the number and type of measurements required for dose assessment.

Validation of environmental transfer models and assessment of the effectiveness of countermeasures using data on (131)I releases from Chernobyl.

The studies undertaken by the (131)I Working Group, part of the International Atomic Energy Agency's EMRAS (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety) programme, were focused primarily on evaluating the predictive capability of environmental models. Particular emphasis was placed on applying models to evaluate the effectiveness of countermeasures.

Evaluation of scattering factor values for internal dose assessment following the IDEAS guidelines: preliminary results.

The IDEAS Guidelines for the assessment of internal doses from monitoring data suggest default measurement uncertainties (i.e. scattering factors, SFs) to be used for different types of monitoring data. However, these default values were mainly based upon expert judgement. In this paper, SF values have been calculated for different radionuclides and types of monitoring data using real data contained in the IDEAS Internal Contamination Database. Results are presented.

A structured approach for the assessment of internal dose: the IDEAS guidelines.

The need for harmonisation of the procedures for internal dose assessment has been recognised within an EU research project under the 5th Framework Programme. The aim of the IDEAS project was to develop general guidelines for standardising assessments of intakes and internal doses. It started in October 2001 and ended in June 2005. The project is closely related to some goals of the work of Committee 2 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and since 2003 there has been close co-operation between the two groups. The general philosophy of the guidelines is focusing on the principles of harmonisation, accuracy and proportionality. The proposed system of 'level of task' to structure the approach of internal dose evaluation is also reported. Some details of the internal structure of the guidelines for the different pathways of intake are provided.

Evaluation of committed effective doses from internal contamination of 241Am using experimentally determined parameters of the contaminant.

Internal contamination of workers with 241Am has occurred a few times since the beginning of the 1970s, mainly in the workplace where radionuclide sources were produced, and later on, also during liquidation of radioactive waste. Contamination in workers was measured in vivo and bioassay was performed. Solubility of aerosol in lungs was studied by in vitro dissolution test with a simulant solution of the extracellular airway lining fluids. Model calculation for the estimation of intakes was done with the experimentally obtained parameters of aerosol, with modified times of intake, with scattering factors, including Types A and B errors, and with corrections on skull size for in vivo measurements. For most cases, an acceptable fit to the experimental data was obtained; for two cases with intakes taking place long time ago ( approximately 30 y), some changes in the model are necessary.

Coordination of research on internal dosimetry in Europe: the CONRAD project.

The EUropean RAdiation DOSimetry Group (EURADOS) initiated in 2005 the CONRAD Project, a Coordinated Network for Radiation Dosimetry funded by the European Commission (EC), within the 6th Framework Programme (FP). The main purpose of CONRAD is to generate a European Network in the field of Radiation Dosimetry and to promote both research activities and dissemination of knowledge. The objective of CONRAD Work Package 5 (WP5) is the coordination of research on assessment and evaluation of internal exposures. Nineteen institutes from 14 countries participate in this action. Some of the activities to be developed are continuations of former European projects supported by the EC in the 5th FP (OMINEX and IDEAS). Other tasks are linked with ICRP activities, and there are new actions never considered before. A collaboration is established with CONRAD Work Package 4, dealing with Computational Dosimetry, to organise an intercomparison on Monte Carlo modelling for in vivo measurements of (241)Am deposited in a knee phantom. Preliminary results associated with CONRAD WP5 tasks are presented here.

Application of IDEAS guidelines: the IDEAS/IAEA intercomparison exercise on internal dose assessment.

As part of the EU Fifth Framework Programme IDEAS project 'General Guidelines for the Evaluation of Incorporation Monitoring Data', and in collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency, a new intercomparison exercise for the assessment of doses from intakes of radionuclides was organised. Several cases were selected, to cover a wide range of practices in the nuclear fuel cycle and medical applications. The cases were: (1) acute intake of HTO, (2) acute inhalation of the fission products 137Cs and 90Sr, (3) acute inhalation of 60Co, (4) repeated intakes of 131I, (5) intake of enriched uranium and (6) single intake of Pu isotopes and 241Am. This intercomparison exercise especially focused on the effect of the Guidelines proposed by the IDEAS project for harmonisation of internal dosimetry.

Analysis of a case of internal contamination with cobalt radioisotopes.

Internal contamination by compounds of cobalt radioisotopes occurs time to time at nuclear power plants. Intakes and committed effective doses are estimated by biokinetic models described in ICRP publications. The paper deals with a case of internal contamination of a worker engaged in a maintenance task at NPP Dukovany. In this case significant discrepancy was observed between intakes based on various datasets (whole body counting, analysis of urine and faeces) when default model setting was used. The reason of this phenomenon was searched for. Three different least square methods of fits were used to find out possible effect of a fitting method. The measured data were fitted by set of biokinetic functions, which covered all intake ways (ingestion and inhalation) and types (M, S, different AMADs and different f1) of the contaminant. The biokinetic model of cobalt needs further improvements as to find better agreement between data fit from direct measurements and bioassay.

Radiation exposure to the population of Europe following the Chernobyl accident.

On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Chernobyl accident an attempt has been made to evaluate the impact of the Chernobyl accident on the global burden of human cancer in Europe. This required the estimation of radiation doses in each of the 40 European countries. Dose estimation was based on the analysis and compilation of data either published in the scientific literature or provided by local experts. Considerable variability has been observed in exposure levels among the European populations. The average individual doses to the thyroid from the intake of (131)I for children aged 1 y were found to vary from approximately 0.01 mGy in Portugal up to 750 mGy in Gomel Oblast (Belarus). Thyroid doses to adults were consistently lower than the doses received by young children. The average individual effective doses from external exposure and ingestion of long-lived radiocaesium accrued in the period 1986-2005 varied from approximately 0 in Portugal to approximately 10 mSv in Gomel Oblast (Belarus) and Bryansk Oblast (Russia). The uncertainties in the dose estimates were subjectively estimated on the basis of the availability and reliability of the radiation data that were used for dose reconstruction in each country.