A scoping review of the relationship between alcohol, memory consolidation and ripple activity: An overview of common methodologies to analyse ripples.

Alcohol abuse is not only responsible for 5.3% of the total deaths in the world but also has a substantial impact on neurological and memory disabilities throughout the population. One extensively studied brain area involved in cognitive functions is the hippocampus. Evidence in several rodent models has shown that ethanol produces cognitive impairment in hippocampal-dependent tasks and that the damage is varied according to the stage of development at which the rodent was exposed to ethanol and the dose. To the authors' knowledge, there is a biomarker for cognitive processes in the hippocampus that remains relatively understudied in association with memory impairment by alcohol administration. This biomarker is called sharp wave-ripples (SWRs) which are synchronous neuronal population events that are well known to be involved in memory consolidation. Methodologies for facilitated or automatic identification of ripples and their analysis have been reported for a wider bandwidth than SWRs. This review is focused on communicating the state of the art about the relationship between alcohol, memory consolidation and ripple activity, as well as the use of the common methodologies to identify SWRs automatically.

An update of 4­aminopyride as a useful model of generalized seizures for testing antiseizure drugs: in vitro and in vivo studies.

Aminopyridines constitute a drug family with the ability to enhance synaptic transmission. In particular, 4­aminopyridine (4­AP) has been used as a model of generalized seizures. 4­AP is a K+ channel blocker, but its mechanism of action has not yet been fully described; some evidence has shown that it acts on the K+ channel types Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.4 and Kv4, which are localized in the axonic terminals of pyramidal neurons and interneurons. When 4­AP blocks the K+ channels it triggers depolarization and prolongs the action potential in the neuron, which causes nonspecific neurotransmitter release. Among these neurotransmitters, glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter released in the hippocampus. Once glutamate is released, it reaches its ionotropic and metabotropic receptors continuing the neuronal depolarization chain and propagation of hyperexcitability. This brief review is focused on the use of 4­AP as an effective seizure model for testing antiseizure drugs in relevant in vitro and in vivo studies.

Validación de un instrumento para medir el respeto de la autonomía del paciente en situación terminal durante la toma de decisiones médicas sobre el final de la vida / Validació d'un instrument per mesurar el respecte de l'autonomia del pacient en situació terminal durant la presa de decisions mèdiques sobre el final de la vida / Validation of an instrument to measure respect for the autonomy of terminally ill patients during end-of-life medical decision-making

Antecedentes: El respeto por la autonomía de la persona consiste en considerarlas preferencias y valores de la persona enferma durante la toma de decisions sobre el tipo de atención que recibe y es un elemento bioético-jurídico. Sin embargo, no existen instrumentos validados sobre este fenómeno que ayuden aclarificar la percepción del médico sobre este principio.Objetivo: Elaborar, validar mediante juicio de expertos y pilotear para obtener la consistencia interna de un instrumento que evalúa el nivel de acuerdo de los médicos sobre los diferentes elementos que constituyen el respeto por la autonomía de la persona enferma en etapa terminal.Métodos: Estudio transversal. Método de validación por juicio de diez expertos de México. El instrumento se piloteó en médicos de un hospital público de alta especialidad para determinar la consistencia interna del mismo.Resultados: Se generó un instrumento de 15 ítems con un índice de validez de contenido de 0.82 para 10 expertos. Fue piloteado en una muestra de 96 médicos. Se obtuvo un alfa de Cronbach de 0.694.Conclusiones: Se desarrolló, validó y evaluó la consistencia interna de un cuestionario para medir el nivel de acuerdo de médicos que atienden a persones enfermas en etapa terminal con relación a los aspectos constitutivos sobre el respeto de su autonomía. Se recomienda su aplicación en médicos para corroborar su utilidad y favorecerun diagnóstico situacional sobre la situación estudiada.(AU)

Antecedents: El respecte per l'autonomia de la persona consisteix a considerar-les preferències i valors de la persona malalta durant la presa de decisions sobre el tipus d'atenció que rep i és un element bioeticojurídic. No obstant això, no hi ha instruments validats sobre aquest fenomen que ajudin a aclarir la percepció del metge sobreaquest principi.Objectiu: Elaborar, validar mitjançant un judici d'experts i pilotejar per obtenir la consistència interna d'un instrument que avalua el nivell d'acord dels metges sobre els diferents elements que constitueixen el respecte per l'autonomiade la persona malalta en l'etapa terminal.Mètodes: Estudi transversal. Mètode de validació per judici de deu experts de Mèxic. L'instrument es va pilotejar en metges d'un hospital públic d'alta especialitat per determinar-ne la consistència interna.Resultats: Es va generar un instrument de 15 ítems amb un índex de validesa de contingut de 0.82 per a 10 experts. Va ser pilotejat en una mostra de 96 metges. S'obtingué un alfa de Cronbach de 0.694.Conclusions: Es va desenvolupar, validar i avaluar la consistència interna d'un qüestionari per mesurar el nivell d'acord de metges que atenen persones malaltes en etapa terminal amb relació als aspectes constitutius sobre el respecte de la seva autonomia. Se'n recomana l'aplicació en metges per corroborar-ne la utilitat i afavorir un diagnòstic situacional sobre la situació estudiada.(AU)

Background: Respect for the autonomy of the person consists in considering the preferences and values of the sick person when making decisions about the type of care they receive and is a bioethical-legal element. However, there are no validated instruments on this phenomenon that help to clarify the physician's perception of this principle.Objective: To elaborate, validate through expert judgment and determine the internal consistency of an instrument that evaluates the level of agreement that the doctors have on the different elements that constitute respect for theautonomy of the terminally ill person.Methods: Cross-sectional study. The expert judgment validation method was used with a panel of ten experts from Mexico. The instrument was piloted in doctors of a highly specialized public hospital to determinate itsinternal consistency.Results: An instrument of 15 items was generated with a content validity index of 0.82 for 10 experts. It was piloted in a sample of 96 doctors (31.3% female and 68.7% male) and with an average age of 30 years. The Cronbach's alpha was 0.694.Conclusions: A questionnaire was developed to measure the level of agreement that the doctor who cares for terminally ill people has in relation to the constitutive aspects of respect for their autonomy. Based on the results of the validation andinternal consistency, its application in medical populations is recommended to corroborate its usefulness and favoura simple situational diagnosis of the situation studied.(AU)

Allopurinol and ellagic acid decrease epileptiform activity and the severity of convulsive behavior in a model of status epilepticus.

BACKGROUND: During status epilepticus, severe seizures can occur, generating recurrent cycles of excitotoxicity and oxidative stress that cause neuronal damage and cell death. The administration of agents with antioxidant properties represents a therapeutic alternative aimed at reducing the severity of status epilepticus and mitigating the neurobiological consequences that precede them. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this work was to evaluate the antiseizure effect of the antioxidants allopurinol (ALL) and ellagic acid during status epilepticus induced by pilocarpine (PILO). METHODS: Male Wistar rats (200-250 g) were injected with ALL (50 mg/kg) or ellagic acid (50 mg/kg), 30 min before PILO administration (pretreatment) or 60 min after the beginning of status epilepticus, to evaluate the antiseizure effect of these drugs on epileptiform activity and convulsive behavior. RESULTS: ALL or ellagic acid administration before or after PILO significantly decreased the epileptiform activity and the severity of convulsive behavior. Better efficacy was observed when the drugs were administered as a pretreatment, increasing the latency time of the appearance of status epilepticus from 27.2 ± 2.6 to 45.8 ± 3.31 min, and significantly reducing the amplitude of epileptiform discharges by 53.5% with ALL and 68.9% with ellagic acid. CONCLUSION: The antioxidants ALL and ellagic acid showed an antiseizure effect, representing an alternative to reduce epileptiform activity and severity of convulsive behavior during status epilepticus, an effect that may be used as adjuvants to mitigate or reduce oxidative damage processes.

A novel hydro-pneumatic fluid percussion device for inducing traumatic brain injury: assessment of sensory, motor, cognitive, molecular, and morphological outcomes in rodents.

Introduction: The fluid percussion method is widely used to induce brain injury in rodents. However, this approach has several limitations, including variability in the resulting damage, which is attributed to factors such as manual control of the mass used to generate the desired pressure. To address these issues, several modifications to the original method have been proposed. Methods: In this study, we present a novel device called the Hydro-pneumatic Fluid Percussion Device, which delivers fluid directly to a lateral region of the brain to induce injury. To validate this model, three groups of male and female rats were subjected to lateral fluid percussion using our device, and the resulting damage was evaluated using sensory, motor, and cognitive tests, measurements of serum injury biomarkers, and morphological analysis via cresyl violet staining. Results: Our results demonstrate that this new approach induced significant alterations in all parameters evaluated. Discussion: This novel device for inducing TBI may be a valuable alternative for modeling brain injury and studying its consequences.

Ellagic acid and allopurinol decrease H2O2 concentrations, epileptiform activity and astrogliosis after status epilepticus in the hippocampus of adult rats.

Status epilepticus (SE) can result in an overproduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which contributes to oxidative stress and brain injury during different phases of epileptogenesis and seizures. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of ellagic acid and allopurinol administered after SE on H2O2 concentrations, electrical activity and GFAP immunoreactivity in the hippocampus of rats evaluated on Day 18 after SE. H2O2 levels were measured using an online technique with high temporal resolution and simultaneous electrical activity recording. For this purpose, the lateral ventricles of male Wistar rats (200-250 g) were injected with pilocarpine (2.4 mg/2 µl) to induce SE. After SE, rats were injected with ellagic acid (50 mg/kg i.p., and two additional doses at 24 and 48 h) or allopurinol (50 mg/kg i.p., single dose). Administration of ellagic acid or allopurinol after SE significantly reduced the H2O2 concentrations and decreased the presence of epileptiform activity and GFAP immunoreactivity in the hippocampus 18 days after SE. In conclusion, the administration of antioxidants potentially reduces oxidative stress, which indicates the possible attenuation of the neurobiological consequences after SE.

Causal relationship of CA3 back-projection to the dentate gyrus and its role in CA1 fast ripple generation.

BACKGROUND: Pathophysiological evidence from temporal lobe epilepsy models highlights the hippocampus as the most affected structure due to its high degree of neuroplasticity and control of the dynamics of limbic structures, which are necessary to encode information, conferring to it an intrinsic epileptogenicity. A loss in this control results in observable oscillatory perturbations called fast ripples, in epileptic rats those events are found in CA1, CA3, and the dentate gyrus (DG), which are the principal regions of the trisynaptic circuit of the hippocampus. The present work used Granger causality to address which relationships among these three regions of the trisynaptic circuit are needed to cause fast ripples in CA1 in an in vivo model. For these purposes, male Wistar rats (210-300 g) were injected with a single dose of pilocarpine hydrochloride (2.4 mg/2 µl) into the right lateral ventricle and video-monitored 24 h/day to detect spontaneous and recurrent seizures. Once detected, rats were implanted with microelectrodes in these regions (fixed-recording tungsten wire electrodes, 60-µm outer diameter) ipsilateral to the pilocarpine injection. A total of 336 fast ripples were recorded and probabilistically characterized, from those fast ripples we made a subset of all the fast ripple events associated with sharp-waves in CA1 region (n = 40) to analyze them with Granger Causality. RESULTS: Our results support existing evidence in vitro in which fast ripple events in CA1 are initiated by CA3 multiunit activity and describe a general synchronization in the theta band across the three regions analyzed DG, CA3, and CA1, just before the fast ripple event in CA1 have begun. CONCLUSION: This in vivo study highlights the causal participation of the CA3 back-projection to the DG, a connection commonly overlooked in the trisynaptic circuit, as a facilitator of a closed-loop among these regions that prolongs the excitatory activity of CA3. We speculate that the loss of inhibitory drive of DG and the mechanisms of ripple-related memory consolidation in which also the CA3 back-projection to DG has a fundamental role might be underlying processes of the fast ripples generation in CA1.

Increased immunoreactivity of glutamate receptors, neuronal nuclear protein and glial fibrillary acidic protein in the hippocampus of epileptic rats with fast ripple activity.

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder in which an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory transmission is observed. Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter that acts through ionic and metabotropic receptors; both types of receptors are involved in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). High frequency oscillations called fast ripples (FR, 250-600 Hz) have been observed, particularly in the hippocampus, and they are involved in epileptogenesis. The present study analyzed the immunoreactivity of the principal glutamate receptors associated with epilepsy in epileptic animals with FR activity. Male Swiss-Wistar rats (210-250 gr) were injected with pilocarpine (2.4 mg/2 µl) and were video monitored (24/7) until the appearance of spontaneous and recurrent seizures. Then, a deep microelectrode implantation surgery was performed in the DG, CA3 and CA1 regions, and FR activity was observed 1-, 2-, 3-, 7-, and 14-day postsurgery. The animals were sacrificed on day 15, and fluorescence immunohistochemistry was carried out in the hippocampus for the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and mGlu-R5 glutamate receptors as well as Neuronal Nuclear Protein (NeuN) and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP). An increase in the immunoreactivity for the three receptors was found. However, the AMPA receptor showed an increase in the three regions analyzed (i.e., DG, CA1 and CA3). The findings showed a decrease of NeuN in the DG and an increase of GFAP. These results suggest an important role of glutamate receptors in the hippocampus of epileptic rats with FR activity.

Nano dot blot: An alternative technique for protein identification and quantification in a high throughput format.

BACKGROUND: Dot blot technique has been used in a similar way to western blotting, with the major difference being the lack of protein separation with electrophoresis. Protein samples are spotted over a membrane paper, the identification and quantification of a protein is achieved by immunodetection procedures such as colorimetry, fluorescence or chemiluminescence. This technique is widely accepted, but it uses large amounts of sample and antibodies to reveal the presence of the target protein. Significant milestones have been reached to achieve better results with the use of less sample and reagents; however, the ninety-six-well format is still in use. NEW METHOD: In this work, we propose an innovation to this technique, reducing the amount of sample and antibodies to identify a specific protein when compared to the regular dot blot method. Procedure consists of using a sample volume of approximately 200 nanoliters deposited with a multineedle device developed by our group. RESULTS: Five samples of standard protein or antigen can be spotted in a Cartesian format to identify and quantify the protein involved in physiological or pathological conditions. In addition, at least five replicates of sample or antigen are used to enable better statistics to calculate the concentration of every standard and the protein present in a sample. CONCLUSIONS: Hundreds of samples can be deposited in a few minutes and analyzed in a single experimental session. To validate this method, which we called nano dot blot, six proteins involved in the inflammation process were tested in acute and chronic rat models of seizures.

Evaluation of the hippocampal immunoreactivity of the serotonin 5-HT1A, 5-HT2 and 5-HT7 receptors in a pilocarpine temporal lobe epilepsy rat model with fast ripples.

Fast ripples (FRs) are found in the hippocampus of epileptic brains, and this fast electrical activity has been described as a biomarker of the epileptogenic process itself. Results from our laboratory, such as the observation of decreased seizure rates and FR incidence at a specific citalopram dose, have suggested that serotonin (5-HT) may play a key role in the FR generation process. Therefore, to gather more details about the state of the serotoninergic system in the hippocampus under an epileptogenic process, we studied the immunoreactivity of three 5-HT receptors (5-HT1A, 5-HT2 and 5-HT7) as well as the extracellular levels of 5-HT in the hippocampal tissue of epileptic rats with FR. Wistar rats (210-300 g) were injected with a single dose of pilocarpine hydrochloride (2.4 mg/2 µl) in the right lateral ventricle and video-monitored 24 h/d to detect spontaneous and recurrent seizures; microelectrodes were implanted in the dentate gyrus (DG) and CA3 and CA1 regions of these rats ipsilateral to the pilocarpine injection site 1 day after the first spontaneous seizure was observed, and only rats who suffered FR events were used in this work. Thirty-three days after the first spontaneous seizure, an immunostaining procedure and high performance liquid chromatography were performed to measure the 5-HT levels. A general depletion of the 5-HT and 5-HIIA levels in hippocampal tissue from epileptic animals compared with those in controls was observed; in addition, a general decrease in immunoreactivity for the three receptors was found, especially in the DG, which may support the establishment of an excitatory/inhibitory imbalance in the trisynaptic circuit that underlies the FR generation process.

The anticonvulsant effect of sparteine on pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in rats: a behavioral, electroencephalographic, morphological and molecular study.

Abnormal synchronous activity in neurons generates epileptic seizures. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are effective in 70% of patients, but this percentage is drastically lower in developing countries. Sparteine is a quinolizidine alkaloid synthesized from most Lupine species and has a probable anticonvulsive effect. For this reason, the objective of the present work was to study the anticonvulsant effect of sparteine using a dose-effect curve and to determine its effectiveness against seizures using behavioral, electroencephalographic, morphological and molecular data. Wistar rats were grouped into control [saline solution (0.9%), pentylenetetrazole (90 mg/kg), and sparteine (13, 20 and 30 mg/kg), intraperitoneal (i.p.)] and experimental (sparteine + pentylenetetrazole) groups. The rats were implanted with surface electrodes to register electrical activity, and convulsive behavior was evaluated according to Velisek's scale. The rats were perfused to obtain brain slices for cresyl violet staining and cellular density quantification as well as for immunohistochemistry for NeuN and GFAP. Other animals were used to determine the hippocampal mRNA expression of the M2 and M4 acetylcholine receptors by qPCR. Sparteine exhibited a better anticonvulsant effect at a dose of 30 mg/kg (i.p.) than at the other doses used. This anticonvulsant effect was characterized by a decrease in the severity of convulsive behavior, 100% survival, an inhibitory effect on epileptiform activity 75 min after pentylenetetrazole administration, and the conservation of the cellular layers of CA1, CA3 and the dentate gyrus (DG); however, astrogliosis was observed after 30 mg/kg sparteine treatment. In addition, sparteine treatment increased the mRNA expression of the M4 receptor three hours after administration. According to our findings, the effective dose of sparteine as an anticonvulsant agent by i.p. injection is 30 mg/kg. The astrogliosis that was observed after sparteine administration may be a compensatory mechanism to diminish excitability and maintain neuronal homeostasis, possibly through redistributing potassium and glutamate. The increase in the mRNA expression of the M4 receptor may suggest the participation of the M4 receptor in the anticonvulsive effect of sparteine, as the activation of this receptor may inhibit acetylcholine release and facilitate the subsequent release of GABA. However, the precise mechanisms by which sparteine produces these effects are not known, and therefore, further experiments are necessary.

Changes in Physiological and Pathological Behaviours Produced by Deep Microelectrode Implantation Surgery in Rats: A Temporal Analysis.

Physiological behaviours such as the sleep-wake cycle and exploratory behaviours are important parameters in intact and sham-operated animals and are usually thought to be unaffected by experimental protocols in which neurosurgery is performed. However, there is insufficient evidence in the literature on the behavioural and cognitive effects observed after deep microelectrode implantation surgery in animal models of neurological diseases. Similarly, in studies that utilize animal models of neurological diseases, the impact of surgery on the pathological phenomena being studied is often minimized. Based on these considerations, we performed a temporal analysis of the effects of deep microelectrode implantation surgery in the hippocampus of rats on quiet wakefulness, sleep, and exploratory activity and the pathological behaviours such as convulsive seizures according to the Racine scale. Male Wistar rats (210-300 g) were used and grouped in sham and epileptic animals. Single doses of pilocarpine hydrochloride (2.4 mg/2 µl; i.c.v.) were administered to the animals to generate spontaneous and recurrent seizures. Deep microelectrode implantation surgeries in both groups and analysis of Fast ripples were performed. Physiological and pathological behaviours were recorded through direct video monitoring of animals (24/7). Our principal findings showed that in epileptic animals, one of the main behaviours affected by surgery is sleep; as a consequence of this behavioural change, a decrease in exploratory activity was also found as well as the mean time spent daily in seizures of scale 4 and the number of seizure events of scales 4 and 5 was increased after surgery. No significant correlations between the occurrence of FR and seizure events of scale 4 (rho 0.63, p value 0.25) or 5 (rho -0.7, p value 0.18) were observed. In conclusion, microelectrode implantation surgeries modified some physiological and pathological behaviours; therefore, it is important to consider this fact when it is working with animal models.

Connexins-Based Hemichannels/Channels and Their Relationship with Inflammation, Seizures and Epilepsy.

Connexins (Cxs) are a family of 21 protein isoforms, eleven of which are expressed in the central nervous system, and they are found in neurons and glia. Cxs form hemichannels (connexons) and channels (gap junctions/electric synapses) that permit functional and metabolic coupling between neurons and astrocytes. Altered Cx expression and function is involved in inflammation and neurological diseases. Cxs-based hemichannels and channels have a relevance to seizures and epilepsy in two ways: First, this pathological condition increases the opening probability of hemichannels in glial cells to enable gliotransmitter release, sustaining the inflammatory process and exacerbating seizure generation and epileptogenesis, and second, the opening of channels favors excitability and synchronization through coupled neurons. These biological events highlight the global pathological mechanism of epilepsy, and the therapeutic potential of Cxs-based hemichannels and channels. Therefore, this review describes the role of Cxs in neuroinflammation and epilepsy and examines how the blocking of channels and hemichannels may be therapeutic targets of anti-convulsive and anti-epileptic treatments.

Effect of Chronic Krill Oil Supplement on Seizures Induced by Pentylenetetrazole in the Hippocampus of Adult Rats with Previous Febrile Seizures.

We evaluated the effect of krill oil (KO) supplement on seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) in animals with previous febrile seizures (FSs) induced by hyperthermia to determine its effectiveness in seizure susceptibility and as an anticonvulsant. Male Wistar rats with FS separated into water (W, 1 mL), palm oil (PO, 300 mg/kg, total volume 1 mL), or KO (300 mg/kg, total volume 1 mL) groups. All drugs were administered chronically via the intragastric route. Electrical activity was recorded by intracranial EEG simultaneously with convulsive behavior. All animals' brains were processed by immunofluorescence against GFAP, NeuN, and connexins (Cx); cellular quantification was performed in hippocampus and pyramidal or granular layer thickness was evaluated with cresyl violet (CV) staining. The results showed a significant delay in convulsive behavior and a slight increased survival time after PTZ administration in the group treated with KO compared with PO and W groups. The epileptiform activity showed high amplitude and frequency, with no significant differences between groups, nor were there differences in the number and duration of discharge trains. KO and PO increased the number of astrocytes and the number of neurons compared with the W group. KO and PO decreased the expression of Cx36 without affecting Cx43 expression or the thickness of layers. Based on these data, we consider it important to perform more experiments to determine the anticonvulsant role of KO, taking into account the partial effect found in this study. KO could be used as a coadjuvant of traditional anticonvulsive treatments. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study was evaluated the anticonvulsive effect of a chronic krill oil (KO) supplement in animals with seizures. Results showed that KO had partial anticonvulsive effects measured by EEG activity and convulsive behavior analysis. These data justify further research that looks at KO supplementation as a prospective coadjuvant of pharmacologic management of seizure disorder.

γ-Aminobutyric acid quantification in small volume biological samples through enzymatically induced electrochemiluminescence.

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a well-known neurotransmitter that regulates inhibitory neurotransmission in the mammalian central nervous system and participates in several processes outside the brain. A reliable quantification method is needed to determine its role in different physiological and pathological conditions. However, GABA measurements have several challenges because GABA is neither fluorescent nor electroactive, and it is difficult to detect using enzymatic reactions because no oxidases or dehydrogenases have been identified. Several methods have been developed to quantify GABA concentrations based on the instrumentation available, the sensitivity required, and the volume of samples analyzed. Most of these methods use high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Here, we describe a method for quantifying GABA concentrations in small volume samples using enzymatically-induced electrochemiluminescence with the well-known GABAse complex, which produces glutamate for use in a luminescent reaction with glutamate oxidase and luminol in an electrochemiluminescence cell. The luminescence obtained was proportional to the GABA concentrations in the micromolar range (1-1000), with linear r2 values > 0.95. GABA standards were treated with the enzymatic reactors to generate glutamate (Glu), which was measured simultaneously with an HPLC technique, to validate this new procedure. The assay was further used to determine GABA concentrations in hippocampal extracts. This alternative may be used to quantify GABA levels in fluid samples, such as microdialysates, other perfusates and tissue extracts. Thus, the method presented here is a good alternative for monitoring GABA levels with good sensitivity compared with the traditional methods that are still in use.

The glutamate receptor antagonists CNQX and MPEP decrease fast ripple events in rats treated with kainic acid.

Fast ripples (FR) are high frequency oscillations (250-600Hz) that have been associated with epilepsy. FR are assumed to be generated in small areas of the hippocampus (1mm3) that contain pathologically interconnected glutamate pyramidal cell clusters. Additionally, a relation between glutamate neurotransmission and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainite (AMPA/KA) and metabotropic mGluR5 receptors is well established. Therefore, we hypothesized that antagonism of these glutamate receptors would decrease FR activity. For this propose, we induced status epilepticus with a kainic acid injection in the posterior right hippocampus and performed intracranial EEG recordings to detect and evaluate the presence of FR 15days after the injection. The glutamate AMPA/KA receptor antagonist CNQX (10mg/kg) and the mGluR5 antagonist MPEP (20mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally, and the effects of the drugs were evaluated for a period of three hours after their administration. The results show a decrease in the number of FR in the first hour after drug administration in both cases (CNQX, p=0.0125; MPEP, p=0.0132) and a return to basal values in the third hour of the experiment, but not significant differences in the number of oscillations per event of FR, and the frequency and duration of each event of FR. We therefore conclude that blockade of AMPA/KA and mGluR5 receptors transiently decreases the generation of FR; however, the mechanisms by which this effect is achieved are to be further analyzed in future experiments.

A microdialysis and enzymatic reactor sensing procedure for the simultaneous registration of online glutamate measurements at high temporal resolution during epileptiform activity.

Glutamate measurement in microdialysis samples has primarily been determined using HPLC methods, and several attempts have been made to establish a relationship between this neurotransmitter and EEG activity during altered brain function, such as epilepsy. However, classic microdialysis methods lack high temporal resolution. In this study, a new alternative is proposed to improve the time resolution and thus obtain a better understanding of the dynamics of Glu and its relationship with epileptiform activity. A new setup was designed to measure Glu online in microdialysates using enzymatic reactors and fluorescence detection. In this study, we performed EEG recordings and Glu measurements simultaneously in the hippocampus to establish their relationship with the epileptiform events that are induced by pentylenetetrazole in intact and epileptic rats. Basal Glu levels in intact and animals with spontaneous seizures were not significantly different. However, a significant increase in Glu levels was detected during the first pentylenetetrazole-induced seizure in both groups. EEG analysis showed that the amplitude of epileptiform activity was higher in rats with spontaneous seizures and that the frequency of this activity did not change. The results showed that this method can be used to determine Glu changes at high temporal resolution and that these changes can be related to seizure activity. In addition, this method can also be used to measure other neurotransmitters that generate fluorescent derivatives. Moreover, this new technique has the following advantages compared with classical neurochemical methods: easy setup, low training requirements, no need for separation, rapidity, and the experimental data can be obtained and analysis performed in a single session.

Sparteine as an anticonvulsant drug: Evidence and possible mechanism of action.

Sparteine is a quinolizidine alkaloid extracted from Lupinus that has numerous pharmacological properties both in humans and animal models. In the central nervous system, sparteine reduces locomotor activity, has light analgesic effects, also has no effects on short-term memory or spatial learning and does not induce changes in behavior or electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. However, the anticonvulsant profile of sparteine is not fully characterized in experimental animals and there are no data in humans. Therefore, the present review focuses on the experimental evidence supporting the anticonvulsant action of sparteine in models of acute seizures and status epilepticus (SE), as well as its possible mechanisms of action. The evidence that supports the anticonvulsant effect of (-)-Sparteine sulfate includes the inhibition of seizures induced by maximal electro-stimulation, a delay in the onset of convulsive behavior and the prolongation of survival time in mice treated with pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). Additionally, sparteine delays the onset of convulsive behavior and decreases the severity and mortality of rats treated with PTZ and pilocarpine. Sparteine decreases amplitude and frequency or blocks the epileptiform activity induced by PTZ, pilocarpine and kainic acid. Sparteine may decrease hyperexcitability through the activation of the M2 and M4 subtypes of mAChRs, which is a probable mechanism of action that together with its systemic effects may favor its anticonvulsant effects against seizures and SE.

Serotonin receptor antagonists increase fast ripple activity in rats treated with kainic acid.

Fast ripples (FR, 250-600 Hz) are field potentials that occur only in those areas capable of generating seizures, such as the hippocampus, and modulation of FR by serotonin has been reported. Therefore, we hypothesized that the receptor antagonists 5HT1A and 5HT2A, B, C will increase FR in rats treated with kainic acid (KA, 0.8 µg/0.5 µl). For this purpose, the intracranial EEG recordings of the hippocampus from animals treated with KA and the serotonin antagonists WAY100135 and ritanserin (dose 0.2mg/Kg, i.p) were analyzed. In addition, morphologic parameters were analyzed after staining samples with cresyl violet, Timm stain, NeuN and GFAP and observing immunofluorescence. The results showed an increase in the number of events of FR (p<0.0001) and duration of each FR event after the administration of WAY100135 (p<0.030). Additionally, there was an increase in the number of events of FR (p<0.0001) and amplitude of FR after ritanserin administration (p<0.014). In relation to changes in unspecified cells, there was a significant decrement in the width of the CA3 pyramidal layer of the hippocampus (p<0.001), and there were no significant changes in reactive glia and fiber sprouting. However, a slight gain of astrocytes marked with GFAP and larger astrocytes with more projections were observed. In conclusion, these results support the modulation of FR by serotonin with participation of the 5HT1A receptor as a possible mediator of the effect. However the exact mechanisms resulting in such effect is not known.

Effect of sparteine on status epilepticus induced in rats by pentylenetetrazole, pilocarpine and kainic acid.

The long-term effects of status epilepticus (SE) include severe clinical conditions that result in disorders of various organs and systems as well as neurological damage that could lead to death. Sparteine is a quinolizidine alkaloid synthesized from most Lupine species, and its anticonvulsive effect was evaluated in the pentylenetetrazole model of SE. However, efforts to clearly determine the anticonvulsive effect of sparteine have not been made previously. For this reason, we consider it important to study the anticonvulsant effects of sparteine at the level of behavior and EEG activity in three different SE models. The animals of the control groups, which received intraperitoneal pentylenetetrazole (90 mg/kg), kainic acid (9 mg/kg) or pilocarpine (370 mg/kg), exhibited convulsive behavior and epileptiform activity. After sparteine pretreatment (13 mg/kg, administered 30 min before the convulsive drug), the animals administered pentylenetetrazole and pilocarpine exhibited reduced mortality rates compared with the corresponding control groups, while the animals administered kainic acid exhibited a delayed onset of convulsive behavior and decreased seizure duration compared with the corresponding control group. In the three models of SE, a significant reduction in the amplitude and frequency of discharge trains was observed. These results support the anticonvulsant effect of low doses of sparteine and allow us to direct our efforts to other new anticonvulsant strategies for seizure treatment. However, it is necessary to perform more experiments to determine the precise mechanism through which sparteine produces an anticonvulsant effect at this concentration.