The effect of time constraints on value-directed long-term memory in younger and older adults.

We often encounter more information than we can remember, making it critical that we are selective in what we remember. Being selective about which information we consolidate into our long-term memory becomes even more important when there is insufficient time to encode and retrieve information. We investigated whether older and younger adults differ in how time constraints, whether at encoding (Experiment 1) or retrieval (Experiment 2), affect their ability to be selective when remembering important information that they need to recall later. In Experiment 1, we found that younger and older adults exhibited similar selectivity, and the participants remained selective when rushed at encoding. In Experiment 2, older adults maintained their selectivity when given insufficient time at retrieval, but younger adults' selectivity was increased when given limited recall time. Altogether, the present experiments provide new support for negligible, and in some cases, even beneficial, effects of time constraints on older and younger adults' ability to selectively encode and retrieve the most valuable information. These findings may provide insight into a mechanism that allows older adults to use their long-term memory efficiently, despite age-related cognitive declines, even when faced with constraining encoding and retrieval situations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-regulated learning of important information under sequential and simultaneous encoding conditions.

Learners make a number of decisions when attempting to study efficiently: they must choose which information to study, for how long to study it, and whether to restudy it later. The current experiments examine whether documented impairments to self-regulated learning when studying information sequentially, as opposed to simultaneously, extend to the learning of and memory for valuable information. In Experiment 1, participants studied lists of words ranging in value from 1-10 points sequentially or simultaneously at a preset presentation rate; in Experiment 2, study was self-paced and participants could choose to restudy. Although participants prioritized high-value over low-value information, irrespective of presentation, those who studied the items simultaneously demonstrated superior value-based prioritization with respect to recall, study selections, and self-pacing. The results of the present experiments support the theory that devising, maintaining, and executing efficient study agendas is inherently different under sequential formatting than simultaneous. (PsycINFO Database Record

Selectively Distracted: Divided Attention and Memory for Important Information.

Distractions and multitasking are generally detrimental to learning and memory. Nevertheless, people often study while listening to music, sitting in noisy coffee shops, or intermittently checking their e-mail. The current experiments examined how distractions and divided attention influence one's ability to selectively remember valuable information. Participants studied lists of words that ranged in value from 1 to 10 points while completing a digit-detection task, while listening to music, or without distractions. Though participants recalled fewer words following digit detection than in the other conditions, there were no significant differences between conditions in terms of selectively remembering the most valuable words. Similar results were obtained across a variety of divided-attention tasks that stressed attention and working memory to different degrees, which suggests that people may compensate for divided-attention costs by selectively attending to the most valuable items and that factors that worsen memory do not necessarily impair the ability to selectively remember important information.

Test expectancy and memory for important information.

Prior research suggests that learners study and remember information differently depending upon the type of test they expect to later receive. The current experiments investigate how testing expectations impact the study of and memory for valuable information. Participants studied lists of words ranging in value from 1 to 10 points with the goal being to maximize their score on a later memory test. Half of the participants were told to expect a recognition test after each list, whereas the other half were told to expect a recall test. After several lists of receiving tests congruent with expectations, participants studying for a recognition test instead received an unexpected recall test. In Experiment 1, participants who had studied for a recognition test recalled less of the valuable information than participants anticipating the recall format. These participants continued to attend less to item value on future (expected) recall tests than participants who had only ever experienced recall testing. When the recognition tests were made more demanding in Experiment 2, value-based recall improved relative to Experiment 1: though memory for the valuable information remained superior when participants studied with the expectation of having to recall the information, there were no longer significant differences after accounting for recall testing experience. Thus, recall-based testing encouraged strategic, value-based encoding and enhanced retrieval of important information, whereas recognition testing in some cases limited value-based study and memory. These results extend prior work concerning the impact of testing expectations on memory, offering further insight into how people study important information. (PsycINFO Database Record

The value in rushing: Memory and selectivity when short on time.

While being short on time can certainly limit what one remembers, are there always such costs? The current study investigates the impact of time constraints on selective memory and the self-regulated study of valuable information. Participants studied lists of words ranging in value from 1-10 points, with the goal being to maximize their score during recall. Half of the participants studied these words at a constant presentation rate of either 1 s or 5s. The other half of participants studied under both rates, either fast (1s) during the first several lists and then slow (5s) during later lists, or vice versa. Study was then self-paced during a final segment of lists for all participants to determine how people regulate their study time after experiencing different presentation rates during study. While participants recalled more words overall when studying at a 5-second rate, there were no significant differences in terms of value-based recall, with all participants demonstrating better recall for higher-valued words and similar patterns of selectivity, regardless of study time or prior timing experience. Self-paced study was also value-based, with participants spending more time studying high-value words than low-value. Thus, while being short on time may have impaired memory overall, participants' attention to item value during study was not differentially impacted by the fast and slow timing rates. Overall, these findings offer further insight regarding the influence that timing schedules and task experience have on how people selectively focus on valuable information.

Memory for Allergies and Health Foods: How Younger and Older Adults Strategically Remember Critical Health Information.

OBJECTIVES: While older adults often display memory deficits, with practice, they can sometimes selectively remember valuable information at the expense of less value information. We examined age-related differences and similarities in memory for health-related information under conditions where some information was critical to remember. METHOD: In Experiment 1, participants studied 3 lists of allergens, ranging in severity from 0 (not a health risk) to 10 (potentially fatal), with the instruction that it was particularly important to remember items to which a fictional relative was most severely allergic. After each list, participants received feedback regarding their recall of the high-value allergens. Experiment 2 examined memory for health benefits, presenting foods that were potentially beneficial to the relative's immune system. RESULTS: While younger adults exhibited better overall memory for the allergens, both age groups in Experiment 1 developed improved selectivity across the lists, with no evident age differences in severe allergen recall by List 2. Selectivity also developed in Experiment 2, although age differences for items of high health benefit were present. DISCUSSION: The results have implications for models of selective memory in older age, and for how aging influences the ability to strategically remember important information within health-related contexts.