Assessing cardiac mechanics through left ventricular haemodynamic forces.

Haemodynamic forces (HDFs), which represent the forces exchanged between blood and surrounding tissues, are critical in regulating the structure and function of the left ventricle (LV). These forces can be assessed on cardiac magnetic resonance or transthoracic echocardiography exams using specialized software, offering a non-invasive alternative for measuring intraventricular pressure gradients. The analysis of HDFs can be a valuable tool in improving our understanding of cardiovascular disease and providing insights beyond traditional diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. For instance, HDF analysis has the potential to identify early signs of adverse remodelling and cardiac dysfunction, which may not be detected by standard imaging methods such as bidimensional or speckle-tracking echocardiography. This review aims to summarize the principles of HDF analysis and to reappraise its possible applications to cardiac disorders.

From Atrial Fibrillation Management to Atrial Myopathy Assessment: The Evolving Concept of Left Atrium Disease in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most prevalent genetically inherited cardiovascular disorder in adults and a significant cause of heart failure and sudden cardiac death. Historically, atrial fibrillation (AF) has been considered as a critical aspect in HCM patients as it is considered to be a marker of disease progression, escalates the frequency of heart failure hospitalisations, increases the risk of thromboembolic events, and worsens quality of life and outcome. Increasing evidence suggests that AF is the result of a subtle long-standing process that starts early in the history of HCM. The process of left atrial dilation accompanied by morphologic and functional remodelling is the quintessential prerequisite for the onset of AF. This review aims to describe the current understanding of AF pathophysiology in HCM, emphasising the role of left atrial myopathy in its development. In addition, we discuss risk factors and management strategies specific to AF in the context of HCM, providing insights into the complexities and challenges of treating this specific patient population.

Myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy vs Fabry disease.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about prevalence and predictors of myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) in Fabry disease (FD) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). We assessed and compared the prevalence and predictors of MINOCA in a large cohort of HCM and FD patients. METHODS: In this multicenter, retrospective study we enrolled 2870 adult patients with HCM and 267 with FD. The only exclusion criterion was documented obstructive coronary artery disease. MINOCA was defined according to guidelines. For each patient we collected clinical, ECG and echocardiographic data recorded at initial evaluation. RESULTS: Overall, 36 patients had MINOCA during a follow-up period of 4.5 ± 11.2 years. MINOCA occurred in 16 patients with HCM (0.5%) and 20 patients with FD (7.5%; p < 0.001). The difference between the 2 groups was highly significant, also after adjustment for the main clinical, ECG and echocardiographic variables (OR 6.12; 95%CI 2.80-13.3; p < 0.001). In the FD population MINOCA occurred in 17 out of 96 patients with left ventricle hypertrophy (LVH, 17.7%) and in 3 out of 171 patients without LVH (1.7%; OR 12.0; 95%CI 3.43-42.3; p < 0.001). At multivariable analysis, voltage criteria for LVH at ECG (OR 7.3; 95%CI 1.93-27.7; p = 0.003) and maximal LV wall thickness at echocardiography (OR 1.15; 95%CI 1.05-1.27; p = 0.002) maintained an independent association with MINOCA. No major significant differences were found in clinical, ECG and echocardiographic findings between HCM patients with or without MINOCA. CONCLUSIONS: MINOCA was rare in HCM patients, and 6-fold more frequent in FD patients. MINOCA may be considered a red flag for FD and aid in the differential diagnosis from HCM.

Prognostic Value of Reduced Heart Rate Reserve during Exercise in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Sympathetic dysfunction can be evaluated by heart rate reserve (HRR) with exercise test. OBJECTIVES: To determine the value of HRR in predicting outcome of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). METHODS: We enrolled 917 HCM patients (age = 49 ± 15 years, 516 men) assessed with exercise stress echocardiography (ESE) in 11 centres. ESE modality was semi-supine bicycle in 51 patients (6%), upright bicycle in 476 (52%), and treadmill in 390 (42%). During ESE, we assessed left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (LVOTO), stress-induced new regional wall motion abnormalities (RWMA), and HRR (peak/rest heart rate, HR). By selection, all patients completed the follow-up. Mortality was the predetermined outcome measure Results: During ESE, RWMA occurred in 22 patients (2.4%) and LVOTO (≥50 mmHg) in 281 (30.4%). HRR was 1.90 ± 0.40 (lowest quartile ≤ 1.61, highest quartile > 2.13). Higher resting heart rate (odds ratio 1.027, 95% CI: 1.018-1.036, p < 0.001), older age (odds ratio 1.021, 95% CI: 1.009-1.033, p < 0.001), lower exercise tolerance (mets, odds ratio 0.761, 95% CI: 0.708-0.817, p < 0.001) and resting LVOTO (odds ratio 1.504, 95% CI: 1.043-2.170, p = 0.029) predicted a reduced HRR. During a median follow-up of 89 months (interquartile range: 36-145 months), 90 all-cause deaths occurred. At multivariable analysis, lowest quartile HRR (Hazard ratio 2.354, 95% CI 1.116-4.968 p = 0.025) and RWMA (Hazard ratio 3.279, 95% CI 1.441-7.461 p = 0.004) independently predicted death, in addition to age (Hazard ratio 1.064, 95% CI 1.043-1.085 p < 0.001) and maximal wall thickness (Hazard ratio 1.081, 95% CI 1.037-1.128, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A blunted HRR during ESE predicts survival independently of RWMA in HCM patients.