Small molecular inhibitors: Therapeutic strategies for pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease with high heterogeneity and a dense stromal microenvironment, presents significant challenges and a bleak prognosis. Recent breakthroughs have illuminated the crucial interplay among RAS, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and hedgehog pathways in PC progression. Small molecular inhibitors have emerged as a potential solution with their advantages of oral administration and the ability to target intracellular and extracellular sites effectively. However, despite the US FDA approving over 100 small-molecule targeted antitumor drugs, challenges such as low response rates and drug resistance persist. This review delves into the possibility of using small molecules to treat persistent or spreading PC, highlighting the challenges and the urgent need for a diverse selection of inhibitors to develop more effective treatment strategies.

HER-2 positive gastric cancer: Current targeted treatments.

Gastric cancer (GC) is highly metastatic and characterized by HER2 amplification. Aberrant HER2 expression drives metastasis, therapy resistance, and tumor recurrence. HER2 amplification contributes to drug resistance by upregulating DNA repair enzymes and drug afflux proteins, reducing drug efficacy. HER2 modulates transcription factors critical for cancer stem cell properties, further impacting drug resistance. HER2 activity is influenced by HER-family ligands, promoting oncogenic signaling. These features point to HER2 as a targetable driver in GC. This review outlines recent advances in HER2-mediated mechanisms and their upstream and downstream signaling pathways in GC. Additionally, it discusses preclinical research investigation that comprehends trastuzumab-sensitizing phytochemicals, chemotherapeutics, and nanoparticles as adjunct therapies. These developments hold promise for improving outcomes and enhancing the management of HER2-positive GC.

Neoantigens and cancer-testis antigens as promising vaccine candidates for triple-negative breast cancer: Delivery strategies and clinical trials.

Immunotherapy is gaining prominence as a promising strategy for treating triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Neoantigens (neoAgs) and cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are tumor-specific targets originating from somatic mutations and epigenetic changes in cancer cells. These antigens hold great promise for personalized cancer vaccines, as supported by preclinical and early clinical evidence in TNBC. This review delves into the potential of neoAgs and CTAs as vaccine candidates, emphasizing diverse strategies and delivery approaches. It also highlights the current status of vaccination modalities undergoing clinical trials in TNBC therapy. A comprehensive understanding of neoAgs, CTAs, vaccination strategies, and innovative delivery methods is crucial for optimizing neoAg-based immunotherapies in clinical practice.

A Novel Pan-RAS Inhibitor with a Unique Mechanism of Action Blocks Tumor Growth in Mouse Models of GI Cancer.

Here, we describe a novel pan-RAS inhibitor, ADT-007, that potently inhibited the growth of RAS mutant cancer cells irrespective of the RAS mutation or isozyme. RAS WT cancer cells with activated RAS from upstream mutations were equally sensitive. Conversely, cells from normal tissues or RAS WT cancer cells harboring downstream BRAF mutations were insensitive. Insensitivity to ADT-007 was attributed to low activated RAS levels and metabolic deactivation by UDP-glucuronosyltransferases expressed in normal cells but repressed in RAS mutant cancer cells. Cellular, biochemical, and biophysical experiments show ADT-007 binds nucleotide-free RAS to block GTP activation of RAS and MAPK/AKT signaling. Local administration of ADT-007 strongly inhibited tumor growth in syngeneic immune-competent and xenogeneic immune-deficient mouse models of colorectal and pancreatic cancer while activating innate and adaptive immunity in the tumor immune microenvironment. Oral administration of ADT-007 prodrug inhibited tumor growth, supporting further development of this novel class of pan-RAS inhibitors for treating RAS-driven cancers. SIGNIFICANCE: ADT-007 is a 1 st -in-class pan-RAS inhibitor with ultra-high potency and unique selectivity for cancer cells with mutant or activated RAS capable of circumventing resistance and activating antitumor immunity. Further development of ADT-007 analogs or prodrugs with oral bioavailability as a generalizable monotherapy or combined with immunotherapy is warranted.

mRNA vaccines and their delivery strategies: A journey from infectious diseases to cancer.

mRNA vaccines have evolved as promising cancer therapies. These vaccines can encode tumor-allied antigens, thus enabling personalized treatment approaches. They can also target cancer-specific mutations and overcome immune evasion mechanisms. They manipulate the body's cellular functions to produce antigens, elicit immune responses, and suppress tumors by overcoming limitations associated with specific histocompatibility leukocyte antigen molecules. However, successfully delivering mRNA into target cells destroys a crucial challenge. Viral and nonviral vectors (lipid nanoparticles and cationic liposomes) have shown great capacity in protecting mRNA from deterioration and assisting in cellular uptake. Cell-penetrating peptides, hydrogels, polymer-based nanoparticles, and dendrimers have been investigated to increase the delivery efficacy and immunogenicity of mRNA. This comprehensive review explores the landscape of mRNA vaccines and their delivery platforms for cancer, addressing design considerations, diverse delivery strategies, and recent advancements. Overall, this review contributes to the progress of mRNA vaccines as an innovative strategy for effective cancer treatment.

Breaking the stromal barrier in pancreatic cancer: Advances and challenges.

Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide due to the absence of early detection methods and the low success rates of traditional therapeutic strategies. Drug resistance in PC is driven by its desmoplastic stroma, which creates a barrier that shields cancer niches and prevents the penetration of drugs. The PC stroma comprises heterogeneous cellular populations and non-cellular components involved in aberrant ECM deposition, immunosuppression, and drug resistance. These components can influence PC development through intricate and complex crosstalk with the PC cells. Understanding how stromal components and cells interact with and influence the invasiveness and refractoriness of PC cells is thus a prerequisite for developing successful stroma-modulating strategies capable of remodeling the PC stroma to alleviate drug resistance and enhance therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we explore how non-cellular and cellular stromal components, including cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor-associated macrophages, contribute to the immunosuppressive and tumor-promoting effects of the stroma. We also examine the signaling pathways underlying their activation, tumorigenic effects, and interactions with PC cells. Finally, we discuss recent pre-clinical and clinical work aimed at developing and testing novel stroma-modulating agents to alleviate drug resistance and improve therapeutic outcomes in PC.

Unleashing the Power of Yes-Associated Protein in Ferroptosis and Drug Resistance in Breast Cancer, with a Special Focus on Therapeutic Strategies.

The YAP protein is a critical oncogenic mediator within the Hippo signaling pathway and has been implicated in various cancer types. In breast cancer, it frequently becomes activated, thereby contributing to developing drug-resistance mechanisms. Recent studies have underscored the intricate interplay between YAP and ferroptosis within the breast tumor microenvironment. YAP exerts a negative regulatory effect on ferroptosis, promoting cancer cell survival and drug resistance. This review offers a concise summary of the current understanding surrounding the interplay between the YAP pathway, ferroptosis, and drug-resistance mechanisms in both bulk tumor cells and cancer stem cells. We also explore the potential of natural compounds alone or in combination with anticancer therapies for targeting the YAP pathway in treating drug-resistant breast cancer. This approach holds the promise of enhancing the effectiveness of current treatments and paving the way for developing novel therapeutics.

Obesity associated pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Therapeutic challenges.

Obesity is a prominent health issue worldwide and directly impacts pancreatic health, with obese individuals exhibiting a significant risk for increasing pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Several factors potentially explain the increased risk for the development of PDAC, including obesity-induced chronic inflammation within and outside of the pancreas, development of insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction, promotion of immune suppression within the pancreas during inflammation, pre- and malignant stages, variations in hormones levels (adiponectin, ghrelin, and leptin) produced from the adipose tissue, and acquisition of somatic mutations in tumor once- and suppressor proteins critical for pancreatic tumorigenesis. In this manuscript, we will explore the broad impact of these obesity-induced risk factors on the development and progression of PDAC, focusing on changes within the tumor microenvironment (TME) as they pertain to prevention, current therapeutic strategies, and future directions for targeting obesity management as they relate to the prevention of pancreatic tumorigenesis.

Resveratrol: biology, metabolism, and detrimental role on the tumor microenvironment of colorectal cancer.

A substantial increase in colorectal cancer (CRC)-associated fatalities can be attributed to tumor recurrence and multidrug resistance. Traditional treatment options, including radio- and chemotherapy, also exhibit adverse side effects. Ancient treatment strategies that include phytochemicals like resveratrol are now widely encouraged as an alternative therapeutic option. Resveratrol is the natural polyphenolic stilbene in vegetables and fruits like grapes and apples. It inhibits CRC progression via targeting dysregulated cancer-promoting pathways, including PI3K/Akt/Kras, targeting transcription factors like NF-κB and STAT3, and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In addition, combination therapies for cancer include resveratrol as an adjuvant to decrease multidrug resistance that develops in CRC cells. The current review discusses the biology of resveratrol and explores different mechanisms of action of resveratrol in inhibiting CRC progression. Further, the detrimental role of resveratrol on the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment of CRC has been discussed. This review illustrates clinical trials on resveratrol in different cancers, including resveratrol analogs, and their efficiency in promoting CRC inhibition.

Gemcitabine effects on tumor microenvironment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Special focus on resistance mechanisms and metronomic therapies.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is considered one of the deadliest malignancies, with dismal survival rates and extremely prevalent chemoresistance. Gemcitabine is one of the primary treatments used in treating PDACs, but its benefits are limited due to chemoresistance, which could be attributed to interactions between the tumor microenvironment (TME) and intracellular processes. In preclinical models, certain schedules of administration of gemcitabine modulate the TME in a manner that does not promote resistance. Metronomic therapy constitutes a promising strategy to overcome some barriers associated with current PDAC treatments. This review will focus on gemcitabine's mechanism in treating PDAC, combination therapies, gemcitabine's interactions with the TME, and gemcitabine in metronomic therapies.

Targeting the metabolism and immune system in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Insights and future directions.

Pancreatic cancer, specifically pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), presents a challenging landscape due to its complex nature and the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). This immunosuppression severely limits the effectiveness of immune-based therapies. Studies have revealed the critical role of immunometabolism in shaping the TME and influencing PDAC progression. Genetic alterations, lysosomal dysfunction, gut microbiome dysbiosis, and altered metabolic pathways have been shown to modulate immunometabolism in PDAC. These metabolic alterations can significantly impact immune cell functions, including T-cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and macrophages, evading anti-tumor immunity. Advances in immunotherapy offer promising avenues for overcoming immunosuppressive TME and enhancing patient outcomes. This review highlights the challenges and opportunities for future research in this evolving field. By exploring the connections between immunometabolism, genetic alterations, and the microbiome in PDAC, it is possible to tailor novel approaches capable of improving immunotherapy outcomes and addressing the limitations posed by immunosuppressive TME. Ultimately, these insights may pave the way for improved treatment options and better outcomes for PDAC patients.

HOTAIR: a potential metastatic, drug-resistant and prognostic regulator of breast cancer.

HOX transcript antisense intergenic RNA (HOTAIR) is an oncogenic non-coding RNA whose expression is strongly correlated with the tumor grade and prognosis of a variety of carcinomas including breast cancer (BC). HOTAIR regulates various target genes via sponging and epigenetic mechanisms and controls various oncogenic cellular and signaling mechanisms including metastasis and drug resistance. In BC cells, HOTAIR expression is regulated by a variety of transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms. In this review, we describe the regulatory mechanisms that govern HOTAIR expression during cancer development and explore how HOTAIR drives BC development, metastasis, and drug resistance. In the final section of this review, we focus on the role of HOTAIR in BC management, therapeutic treatment, and prognosis, highlighting its potential therapeutic applications.

Mitochondrial-targeted nanoparticles: Delivery and therapeutic agents in cancer.

Mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells and modulate the essential metabolic functions required for cellular survival. Various mitochondrial pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are dysregulated during cancer growth and development, rendering them attractive targets against cancer. Thus, the delivery of antitumor agents to mitochondria has emerged as a potential approach for treating cancer. Recent advances in nanotechnology have provided innovative solutions for overcoming the physical barriers posed by the structure of mitochondrial organelles, and have enabled the development of efficient mitochondrial nanoplatforms. In this review, we examine the importance of mitochondria during neoplastic development, explore the most recent smart designs of nano-based systems aimed at targeting mitochondria, and highlight key mitochondrial pathways in cancer cells.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate pancreatic cancer stem cell formation, stemness and chemoresistance: A brief overview.

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most aggressive cancers worldwide due to the resistances to conventional therapies and early metastasis. Recent research has shown that cancer stem cell populations modulate invasiveness, recurrence, and drug resistance in various cancers, including pancreatic cancer. Pancreatic cancer stem cells (PaCSCs) are characterized by their high plasticity and self-renewal capacities that endow them with unique metabolic, metastatic, and chemoresistant properties. Understanding the exact molecular and signaling mechanisms that underlay malignant processes in PaCSCs is instrumental for developing novel therapeutic modalities that overcome the limitations of current therapeutic regimens. In this paper, we provide an updated review of the latest research in the field and summarize the current knowledge of PaCSCs characteristics, cellular metabolism, stemness, and drug resistance. We explore how the crosstalk between the TME and PaCSCs influences stemness. We also highlight some of the key signalling pathways involved in PaCSCs stemness and drug evasion. The aim of this review is to explore how PaCSCs develop, maintain their properties, and drive tumor relapse in PC. The last section explores some of the latest therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting PaCSCs.

Protein Kinase D1 Signaling in Cancer Stem Cells with Epithelial-Mesenchymal Plasticity.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNETs) are extremely diverse and highly vascularized neoplasms that arise from endocrine cells in the pancreas. The pNETs harbor a subpopulation of stem cell-like malignant cells, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs), which contribute to intratumoral heterogeneity and promote tumor maintenance and recurrence. In this study, we demonstrate that CSCs in human pNETs co-express protein kinase PKD1 and CD44. We further identify PKD1 signaling as a critical pathway in the control of CSC maintenance in pNET cells. PKD1 signaling regulates the expression of a CSC- and EMT-related gene signature and promotes CSC self-renewal, likely leading to the preservation of a subpopulation of CSCs at an intermediate EMT state. This suggests that the PKD1 signaling pathway may be required for the development of a unique CSC phenotype with plasticity and partial EMT. Given that the signaling networks connected with CSC maintenance and EMT are complex, and extend through multiple levels of regulation, this study provides insight into signaling regulation of CSC plasticity and partial EMT in determining the fate of CSCs. Inhibition of the PKD1 pathway may facilitate the elimination of specific CSC subsets, thereby curbing tumor progression and metastasis.

Fibroblast heterogeneity in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Perspectives in immunotherapy.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the key component in pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME), originate from many sources and are naturally heterogeneous in phenotype and function. Numerous studies have identified their crucial role in promoting tumorigenesis through many routes including fostering cancer proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Conversely, research also indicates that subsets of CAFs express anti-tumor activity. These dual effects reflect the complexity of CAF heterogeneity and their interactions with other cells and factors in pancreatic TME. A critical component in this environment is infiltrated immune cells and immune mediators, which can communicate with CAFs. The crosstalk occurs via the production of various cytokines, chemokines, and other mediators and shapes the immunological state in TME. Comprehensive studies of the crosstalk between CAFs and tumor immune environment, particularly internal mechanisms interlinking CAFs and immune effectors, may provide new approaches for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) treatments. In this review, we explore the characteristics of CAFs, describe the interplay among CAFs, infiltrated immune cells, other mediators, and provide an overview of recent CAF-target therapies, their limitations, and potential research directions in CAF in the context of PDAC.

Pyroptosis-based nanotherapeutics: Possible mechanisms for cancer treatment.

Pyroptosis represents an inflammatory cell death form induced by inflammasomes and performed by gasdermins. It is characterized by swelling, pore formation, release of cellular content and the activation of innate immunity leading to inflammation. Hence, pyroptosis contributes to inflammatory conditions like cancer and has emerged as a promising immuno-strategy for treating cancer. The advent of nanotechnology, which overlaps with the discovery of pyroptotic cell death, has enabled the development of nano-based pyroptosis inducing platforms aimed at overcoming resistance to apoptosis and enhancing tumor immunity. In this paper, we will describe the various molecular pathways underlying pyroptosis, such as canonical and non-canonical pyroptosis. We will then explore the advances in the field of pyroptosis-based nanotherapeutics and their future implications.

Pleiotropic roles of evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in toll pathway (ECSIT) in pathophysiology.

The evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in toll pathway (ECSIT) is a cytosolic adaptor protein associated with the toll-like receptor pathway. It has a distinct N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence, pentatricopeptide repeat motif, and a C-terminal pleckstrin homology domain. ECSIT regulates many biological processes like embryonic development, inflammation, cardiac function, and assembly of mitochondrial complex I. Besides, ECSIT also interacts with multiple signaling intermediates like tumor necrosis receptor associated factor 6 and retinoic acid inducible gene 1 as well as regulates various pathways in the microcellular environment. However, molecular details of ECSIT functions in pathophysiology remain elusive. This review summarizes the diverse functions of ECSIT and its involvement in pathophysiological conditions such as Alzheimer's, oxidative stress, and infection.

Cancer Stem Cells and Circulatory Tumor Cells Promote Breast Cancer Metastasis.

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly metastatic, pathological cancer that significantly affects women worldwide. The mortality rate of BC is related to its heterogeneity, aggressive phenotype, and metastasis. Recent studies have highlighted that the tumor microenvironment (TME) is critical for the interplay between metastasis mediators in BC. BC stem cells, tumor-derived exosomes, circulatory tumor cells (CTCs), and signaling pathways dynamically remodel the TME and promote metastasis. This review examines the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) that facilitate metastasis. This review also discusses the role of cancer stem cells (CSCs), tumor-derived exosomes, and CTs in promoting BC metastasis. Furthermore, the review emphasizes major signaling pathways that mediate metastasis in BC. Finally, the interplay among CSCs, exosomes, and CTCs in mediating metastasis have been highlighted. Therefore, understanding the molecular cues that mediate the association of CSCs, exosomes, and CTCs in TME helps to optimize systemic therapy to target metastatic BC.

Nanoparticles mediated tumor microenvironment modulation: current advances and applications.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a key role in cancer development and emergence of drug resistance. TME modulation has recently garnered attention as a potential approach for reprogramming the TME and resensitizing resistant neoplastic niches to existing cancer therapies such as immunotherapy or chemotherapy. Nano-based solutions have important advantages over traditional platform and can be specifically targeted and delivered to desired sites. This review explores novel nano-based approaches aimed at targeting and reprogramming aberrant TME components such as macrophages, fibroblasts, tumor vasculature, hypoxia and ROS pathways. We also discuss how nanoplatforms can be combined with existing anti-tumor regimens such as radiotherapy, immunotherapy, phototherapy or chemotherapy to enhance clinical outcomes in solid tumors.