ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Influenza viruses can cause zoonotic infections that pose public health risks. Surveillance of influenza A and B viruses is conducted globally; however, information on influenza C and D viruses is limited. Longitudinal monitoring of influenza C virus in humans has been conducted in several countries, but there has been no long-term monitoring of influenza D virus in humans. The public health risks associated with the influenza D virus therefore remain unknown. METHODS: We established a duplex real-time RT-PCR to detect influenza C and D viruses and analyzed respiratory specimens collected from 2144 patients in Japan with respiratory diseases between January 2018 and March 2023. We isolated viruses and conducted hemagglutination inhibition tests to examine antigenicity and focus reduction assays to determine susceptibility to the cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor baloxavir marboxil. RESULTS: We detected three influenza C viruses belonging to the C/Kanagawa- or C/Sao Paulo-lineages, which recently circulated globally. None of the specimens was positive for the influenza D virus. The C/Yokohama/1/2022 strain, isolated from the specimen with the highest viral RNA load and belonging to the C/Kanagawa-lineage, showed similar antigenicity to the reference C/Kanagawa-lineage strain and was susceptible to baloxavir. CONCLUSIONS: Our duplex real-time RT-PCR is useful for the simultaneous detection of influenza C and D viruses from the same specimen. Adding the influenza D virus to the monitoring of the influenza C virus would help in assessing the public health risks posed by this virus.
Subject(s)
Dibenzothiepins , Gammainfluenzavirus , Influenza, Human , Pyridones , Triazines , Humans , Japan/epidemiology , Influenza, Human/virology , Influenza, Human/epidemiology , Triazines/pharmacology , Male , Female , Gammainfluenzavirus/isolation & purification , Gammainfluenzavirus/genetics , Middle Aged , Adult , Aged , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Morpholines , Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests , Child, Preschool , Child , Adolescent , Young Adult , Thogotovirus/genetics , Thogotovirus/isolation & purification , Thogotovirus/classification , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction , Infant , Aged, 80 and overABSTRACT
In Japan, influenza activity was low throughout the COVID-19 pandemic until the 2022-23 season, when the first influenza outbreak occurred since the 2020-21 season. In our influenza surveillance during the COVID-19 pandemic, co-infection with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus had not been detected; however, in January 2024, we identified three pediatric outpatients co-infected with these viruses: one with SARS-CoV-2 Omicron EG.5 sublineage HK.3 and influenza A(H3N2) and two with SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2.86 sublineage JN.1.5 and influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. We evaluated the susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 against RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitors (remdesivir and molnupiravir) and 3C-like protease inhibitors (nirmatrelvir and ensitrelvir), and that of influenza viruses against neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir, peramivir, zanamivir, and laninamivir) and the cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor baloxavir. All viruses tested were susceptible to these antiviral drugs and did not possess amino acid substitutions associated with reduced antiviral susceptibility. The patients were treated with anti-influenza drugs and did not develop severe symptoms despite the co-infection. Since SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses continue to evolve, continuous monitoring of their circulation remains essential to assess public health measures and support clinical management.
Subject(s)
Antiviral Agents , COVID-19 , Coinfection , Influenza, Human , SARS-CoV-2 , Humans , Influenza, Human/drug therapy , Influenza, Human/virology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Coinfection/virology , Coinfection/drug therapy , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , Child , COVID-19/epidemiology , COVID-19/virology , Male , Child, Preschool , Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/drug effects , Female , Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/drug effects , Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/genetics , Japan/epidemiology , COVID-19 Drug TreatmentABSTRACT
Antiviral susceptibility of influenza viruses was assessed using a high-content imaging-based neutralization test. Cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitors, baloxavir and AV5116, were superior to AV5115 against type A viruses, and AV5116 was most effective against PA mutants tested. However, these three inhibitors displayed comparable activity (EC50 8-22 nM) against type C viruses from six lineages. Banana lectin and a monoclonal antibody, YA3, targeting the hemagglutinin-esterase protein effectively neutralized some, but not all, type C viruses.
Subject(s)
Antiviral Agents , Dibenzothiepins , Triazines , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Humans , Triazines/pharmacology , Dibenzothiepins/pharmacology , Gammainfluenzavirus/drug effects , Gammainfluenzavirus/genetics , Morpholines/pharmacology , Pyridones/pharmacology , Animals , Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology , Madin Darby Canine Kidney Cells , Dogs , Cyclopropanes/pharmacology , Influenza A virus/drug effects , Neutralization Tests , Pyridines/pharmacologyABSTRACT
Potency tests for influenza vaccines are currently performed using a single-radial immunodiffusion (SRID) assay, which requires a reference antigen and anti-hemagglutinin (HA) serum as reference reagents. Reagents must be newly prepared each time a strain used for vaccine production is modified. Therefore, establishing reference reagents of consistent quality is crucial for conducting vaccine potency tests accurately and precisely. Here, we established reference reagents for the SRID assay to conduct lot release tests of quadrivalent influenza vaccines in Japan during the 2022/23 influenza season. The potency of reference antigens during storage was confirmed. Furthermore, we evaluated the cross-reactivity of each antiserum raised against the HA protein of the 2 lineages of influenza B virus toward different lineages of influenza B virus antigens to select a suitable procedure for the SRID assay for accurate measurement. Finally, the intralaboratory reproducibility of the SRID assay using the established reference reagents was validated, and the SRID reagents had sufficient consistent quality, comparable to that of the reagents used for testing vaccines during previous influenza seasons. Our study contributes to the quality control of influenza vaccines.
Subject(s)
Influenza Vaccines , Influenza, Human , Humans , Influenza, Human/prevention & control , Seasons , Japan , Reproducibility of Results , Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus , Immunodiffusion/methodsABSTRACT
A community cluster of influenza A(H3N2) caused by viruses with an E199G substitution in PA was detected in Nara, Japan, between February and March 2023. The three patients with these mutant viruses had not received antiviral treatment before specimen collection but patients in the same hospital had. The sequences of the mutant viruses were closely related, suggesting clonal spread in Nara. They showed reduced susceptibility to baloxavir in vitro; however, the clinical significance of the PA E199G substitution remains unclear.
Subject(s)
Influenza, Human , Thiepins , Humans , Influenza, Human/drug therapy , Influenza, Human/epidemiology , Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/genetics , Oxazines/pharmacology , Pyridines/pharmacology , Japan , Thiepins/pharmacology , Thiepins/therapeutic use , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Drug Resistance, Viral/geneticsABSTRACT
The emergence and spread of antiviral-resistant SARS-CoV-2 is of great concern. In this study, we evaluated the propensity of Omicron variants to escape from RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) inhibitors and 3C-like protease (3CLpro) inhibitors. SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants were serially passaged in vitro in the presence of RdRP inhibitors (remdesivir and molnupiravir) and 3CLpro inhibitors (nirmatrelvir and lufotrelvir) to detect SARS-CoV-2 escape mutants. After five passages with 3CLpro inhibitors, mutant viruses that escaped from 3CLpro inhibitors emerged; however, in the presence of RdRP inhibitors all variants disappeared within 2-4 passages. Our findings suggest that the frequency of SARS-CoV-2 mutant escape from RdRP inhibitors is lower than that from 3CLpro inhibitors. We also found that Delta variants were more likely to acquire amino acid substitutions associated with resistance to 3CLpro inhibitors under the selective pressure of this drug compared with Omicron variants.
Subject(s)
COVID-19 , Humans , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Leucine , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/genetics , Protease Inhibitors/pharmacologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Advances in multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have enabled the simultaneous detection of multiple respiratory viruses. We aimed to estimate the clinical and virologic impacts of influenza and other respiratory virus co-infection in children. METHODS: We enrolled 38 and 35 children diagnosed with influenza and treated with baloxavir marboxil (baloxavir) and oseltamivir, respectively. We performed quantitative reverse transcription-PCR to detect and measure the levels of noninfluenza viruses from 3 nasopharyngeal swab samples collected before and on days 3 and 5 after the initial antiviral dose. We assessed patients' clinical information using questionnaires. RESULTS: One or more respiratory viruses other than influenza virus were detected in 26 (35.6%) of 73 children before antiviral treatment. The influenza virus load and clinical characteristics on the day of influenza onset were similar between children with and without virus co-infections. Of the 26 and 32 children without the emergence of the reduced baloxavir and oseltamivir susceptible variants after treatment, 8 (30.8%) and 7 (21.9%) children were dually co-infected with human rhinovirus only, respectively. The level of human rhinovirus RNA on day 0 in these children was less than -3 log 10 that of influenza virus RNA, and the human rhinovirus co-infection had no impact on the disease course either clinically or virologically. CONCLUSIONS: When multiple respiratory viruses are detected in the same patient, it is necessary to assess clinical symptoms as well as the levels of detected viruses to determine which virus contributes to the development of illness.
Subject(s)
Coinfection , Influenza, Human , Virus Diseases , Viruses , Humans , Child , Influenza, Human/complications , Influenza, Human/drug therapy , Influenza, Human/epidemiology , Oseltamivir/therapeutic use , Coinfection/epidemiology , Coinfection/drug therapy , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic useABSTRACT
The emergence and spread of antiviral-resistant influenza viruses are of great concern. To minimize the public health risk, it is important to monitor antiviral susceptibilities of influenza viruses. Analyses of the antiviral susceptibilities of influenza A and B viruses have been conducted globally; however, those of influenza C and D viruses are limited. Here, we determined the susceptibilities of influenza C viruses representing all six lineages (C/Taylor, C/Yamagata, C/Sao Paulo, C/Aichi, C/Kanagawa, and C/Mississippi) and influenza D viruses representing four lineages (D/OK, D/660, D/Yama2016, and D/Yama2019) to RNA polymerase inhibitors (baloxavir and favipiravir) by using a focus reduction assay. All viruses tested were susceptible to both drugs. We then performed a genetic analysis to check for amino acid substitutions associated with baloxavir and favipiravir resistance and found that none of the viruses tested possessed these substitutions. Use of the focus reduction assay with the genotypic assay has proven valuable for monitoring the antiviral susceptibilities of influenza C and D viruses as well as influenza A and B viruses. Antiviral susceptibility monitoring of all influenza virus types should continue in order to assess the public health risks posed by these viruses.
Subject(s)
Influenza, Human , Orthomyxoviridae , Humans , Influenza, Human/drug therapy , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Brazil , Drug Resistance, Viral/geneticsABSTRACT
The emergence and spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease (COVID-19), prompted worldwide COVID-19 surveillance. To investigate the impact of COVID-19 on influenza activity, we used global surveillance data collected since 2019 to compare the number of cases positive for COVID-19 and for influenza across 22 representative countries (Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, The Netherlands, The Philippines, Poland, The Republic of Korea, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, The United Kingdom, The United States, and Vietnam). Our results demonstrate alternating prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus.
Subject(s)
COVID-19 , Influenza, Human , United States , Humans , Influenza, Human/epidemiology , COVID-19/epidemiology , SARS-CoV-2 , France , SpainSubject(s)
Antibodies, Viral , Antiviral Agents , COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Vaccine Efficacy , Humans , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , Antiviral Agents/immunology , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , In Vitro Techniques , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , COVID-19/genetics , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19/virologyABSTRACT
Three types of assays--colorimetric, fluorescent, and chemiluminescent--are used to determine the sialidase (neuraminidase: NA) activity of influenza viruses. The fluorescent assay is cost-effective and applicable for many laboratories and is, therefore, commonly used for global monitoring of the NA inhibitor susceptibility of influenza viruses. Here, I describe, in detail, protocols for the fluorescence-based NA activity assay and the NA inhibition assay, which are used to determine the NA activity and NA inhibitor susceptibility, respectively, of influenza viruses.
Subject(s)
Central Nervous System Depressants , Orthomyxoviridae , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Biological Assay , Coloring Agents , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , NeuraminidaseSubject(s)
Antibodies, Neutralizing , Antiviral Agents , COVID-19 Drug Treatment , COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Antibodies, Neutralizing/drug effects , Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/drug effects , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , Antiviral Agents/immunology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , COVID-19/genetics , COVID-19/immunology , Humans , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , SARS-CoV-2/immunologySubject(s)
Antibodies, Monoclonal , Antibodies, Neutralizing , Antiviral Agents , COVID-19 Drug Treatment , COVID-19 , Immunologic Factors , SARS-CoV-2 , Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Neutralizing/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , COVID-19/immunology , Humans , Immunologic Factors/therapeutic use , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , Vaccine EfficacyABSTRACT
The spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the major antigen stimulating the host's protective immune response. Here we assessed the efficacy of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) sublineage BA.1 variants in Syrian hamsters. Of the FDA-approved therapeutic mAbs tested (that is, REGN10987/REGN10933, COV2-2196/COV2-2130 and S309), only COV2-2196/COV2-2130 efficiently inhibited BA.1 replication in the lungs of hamsters, and this effect was diminished against a BA.1.1 variant possessing the S-R346K substitution. In addition, treatment of BA.1-infected hamsters with molnupiravir (a SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor) or S-217622 (a SARS-CoV-2 protease inhibitor) strongly reduced virus replication in the lungs. These findings suggest that the use of therapeutic mAbs in Omicron-infected patients should be carefully considered due to mutations that affect efficacy, and demonstrate that the antiviral compounds molnupiravir and S-217622 are effective against Omicron BA.1 variants.
Subject(s)
COVID-19 Drug Treatment , SARS-CoV-2 , Animals , Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Neutralizing , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Cricetinae , Humans , Mesocricetus , RNA, ViralABSTRACT
The recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529 lineage) variants possessing numerous mutations has raised concerns of decreased effectiveness of current vaccines, therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs for COVID-19 against these variants1,2. The original Omicron lineage, BA.1, prevailed in many countries, but more recently, BA.2 has become dominant in at least 68 countries3. Here we evaluated the replicative ability and pathogenicity of authentic infectious BA.2 isolates in immunocompetent and human ACE2-expressing mice and hamsters. In contrast to recent data with chimeric, recombinant SARS-CoV-2 strains expressing the spike proteins of BA.1 and BA.2 on an ancestral WK-521 backbone4, we observed similar infectivity and pathogenicity in mice and hamsters for BA.2 and BA.1, and less pathogenicity compared with early SARS-CoV-2 strains. We also observed a marked and significant reduction in the neutralizing activity of plasma from individuals who had recovered from COVID-19 and vaccine recipients against BA.2 compared to ancestral and Delta variant strains. In addition, we found that some therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (REGN10987 plus REGN10933, COV2-2196 plus COV2-2130, and S309) and antiviral drugs (molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir and S-217622) can restrict viral infection in the respiratory organs of BA.2-infected hamsters. These findings suggest that the replication and pathogenicity of BA.2 is similar to that of BA.1 in rodents and that several therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral compounds are effective against Omicron BA.2 variants.
Subject(s)
Antiviral Agents , COVID-19 Drug Treatment , SARS-CoV-2 , Animals , Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology , Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized , Antibodies, Neutralizing/pharmacology , Antibodies, Neutralizing/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Viral/pharmacology , Antibodies, Viral/therapeutic use , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , COVID-19/genetics , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19/virology , Cricetinae , Cytidine/analogs & derivatives , Drug Combinations , Hydroxylamines , Indazoles , Lactams , Leucine , Mice , Nitriles , Proline , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics , Triazines , TriazolesABSTRACT
Global analysis of the susceptibility of influenza viruses to neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors (NAIs) and the polymerase acidic (PA) inhibitor (PAI) baloxavir was conducted by five World Health Organization Collaborating Centres for Reference and Research on Influenza during two periods (May 2018-May 2019 and May 2019-May 2020). Combined phenotypic and NA sequence-based analysis revealed that the global frequency of viruses displaying reduced or highly reduced inhibition (RI or HRI) or potential to show RI/HRI by NAIs remained low, 0.5% (165/35045) and 0.6% (159/26010) for the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 periods, respectively. The most common amino acid substitution was NA-H275Y (N1 numbering) conferring HRI by oseltamivir and peramivir in A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. Combined phenotypic and PA sequence-based analysis showed that the global frequency of viruses showing reduced susceptibility to baloxavir or carrying substitutions associated with reduced susceptibility was low, 0.5% (72/15906) and 0.1% (18/15692) for the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 periods, respectively. Most (n = 61) of these viruses had I38âT/F/M/S/L/V PA amino acid substitutions. In Japan, where baloxavir use was highest, the rate was 4.5% (41/919) in the 2018-2019 period and most of the viruses (n = 32) had PA-I38T. Zoonotic viruses isolated from humans (n = 32) in different countries did not contain substitutions in NA associated with NAI RI/HRI phenotypes. One A(H5N6) virus had a dual substitution PA-I38V + PA-E199G, which may reduce susceptibility to baloxavir. Therefore, NAIs and baloxavir remain appropriate choices for the treatment of influenza virus infections, but close monitoring of antiviral susceptibility is warranted.
Subject(s)
Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype , Influenza, Human , Amino Acid Substitution , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use , Dibenzothiepins , Drug Resistance, Viral/genetics , Endonucleases/genetics , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Enzyme Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Humans , Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/genetics , Influenza B virus , Morpholines , Neuraminidase/genetics , Neuraminidase/therapeutic use , Oseltamivir/pharmacology , Oseltamivir/therapeutic use , Pyridones , TriazinesABSTRACT
The recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants possessing large numbers of mutations has raised concerns of decreased effectiveness of current vaccines, therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, and antiviral drugs for COVID-19 against these variants1,2. While the original Omicron lineage, BA.1, has become dominant in many countries, BA.2 has been detected in at least 67 countries and has become dominant in the Philippines, India, and Denmark. Here, we evaluated the replicative ability and pathogenicity of an authentic infectious BA.2 isolate in immunocompetent and human ACE2 (hACE2)-expressing mice and hamsters. In contrast to recent data with chimeric, recombinant SARS-CoV-2 strains expressing the spike proteins of BA.1 and BA.2 on an ancestral WK-521 backbone3, we observed similar infectivity and pathogenicity in mice and hamsters between BA.2 and BA.1, and less pathogenicity compared to early SARS-CoV-2 strains. We also observed a marked and significant reduction in the neutralizing activity of plasma from COVID-19 convalescent individuals and vaccine recipients against BA.2 compared to ancestral and Delta variant strains. In addition, we found that some therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (REGN10987/REGN10933, COV2-2196/COV2-2130, and S309) and antiviral drugs (molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir, and S-217622) can restrict viral infection in the respiratory organs of hamsters infected with BA.2. These findings suggest that the replication and pathogenicity of BA.2 is comparable to that of BA.1 in rodents and that several therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral compounds are effective against Omicron/BA.2 variants.
ABSTRACT
The circulation of avian influenza A viruses in poultry is a public health concern due to the potential transmissibility and severity of these viral infections. Monitoring the susceptibility of these viruses to antivirals is important for developing measures to strengthen the level of preparedness against influenza pandemics. However, drug susceptibility information on these viruses is limited. Here, we determined the susceptibilities of avian influenza A(H5N1), A(H5N2), A(H5N8), A(H7N7), A(H7N9), A(H9N1), and A(H9N2) viruses isolated in Japan to the antivirals approved for use there: an M2 inhibitor (amantadine), neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir, peramivir, zanamivir, and laninamivir) and RNA polymerase inhibitors (baloxavir and favipiravir). Genotypic methods that detect amino acid substitutions associated with antiviral resistance and phenotypic methods that assess phenotypic viral susceptibility to drugs have revealed that these avian influenza A viruses are susceptible to neuraminidase and RNA polymerase inhibitors. These results suggest that neuraminidase and RNA polymerase inhibitors currently approved in Japan could be a treatment option against influenza A virus infections in humans.