Addition and correction: the NF-kappa B-like DNA binding activity observed in Dictyostelium nuclear extracts is due to the GBF transcription factor.

We have previously reported that a NF-kappa B transduction pathway was likely to be present in the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. This conclusion was based on several observations, including the detection of developmentally regulated DNA binding proteins in Dictyostelium nuclear extracts that bound to bona fide kappa B sequences. We have now performed additional experiments which demonstrate that the protein responsible for this NF-kappa B-like DNA binding activity is the Dictyostelium GBF (G box regulatory element binding factor) transcription factor. This result, along with the fact that no sequence with significant similarity to components of the mammalian NF-kappa B pathway can be found in Dictyostelium genome, now almost entirely sequenced, led us to reconsider our previous conclusion on the occurrence of a NF-kappa B signal transduction pathway in Dictyostelium.

On the evolutionary conservation of the cell death pathway: mitochondrial release of an apoptosis-inducing factor during Dictyostelium discoideum cell death.

Mitochondria play a pivotal role in apoptosis in multicellular organisms by releasing apoptogenic factors such as cytochrome c that activate the caspases effector pathway, and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) that is involved in a caspase-independent cell death pathway. Here we report that cell death in the single-celled organism Dictyostelium discoideum involves early disruption of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (DeltaPsim) that precedes the induction of several apoptosis-like features, including exposure of the phosphatidyl residues at the external surface of the plasma membrane, an intense vacuolization, a fragmentation of DNA into large fragments, an autophagy, and the release of apoptotic corpses that are engulfed by neighboring cells. We have cloned a Dictyostelium homolog of mammalian AIF that is localized into mitochondria and is translocated from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm and the nucleus after the onset of cell death. Cytoplasmic extracts from dying Dictyostelium cells trigger the breakdown of isolated mammalian and Dictyostelium nuclei in a cell-free system, and this process is inhibited by a polyclonal antibody specific for Dictyostelium discoideum apoptosis-inducing factor (DdAIF), suggesting that DdAIF is involved in DNA degradation during Dictyostelium cell death. Our findings indicate that the cell death pathway in Dictyostelium involves mitochondria and an AIF homolog, suggesting the evolutionary conservation of at least part of the cell death pathway in unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Inhibition of potato virus Y NIa activity: preparation of monoclonal antibody directed against PVY NI protein that inhibits cleavage of PVY polyprotein.

A partially purified nuclear inclusion (NI) fraction was obtained from tobacco plants infected by potato virus Y (PVY). Four monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were produced and characterized using this semipurified fraction as antigen. Data showed that only one was directed against NIa whereas two were directed against cytoplasmic inclusion (CI) protein and the last one against coat protein (CP). These results were due to the fact that the semipurified NI fraction was usually contaminated with CI and CP proteins. When used on in situ immunofluorescence method the anti-NIa MAb showed accumulation of the NIa protein in both nucleus and cytoplasm. In vivo, this MAb was able to detect different forms of the NIa protein including precursors and cleavage products. It was also able to inhibit the cleavage of the polyprotein detected in the semipurified NI.

The H89 cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor blocks Plasmodium falciparum development in infected erythrocytes.

In Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of human malaria, the catalytic subunit gene of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (Pfpka-c) exists as a single copy. Interestingly, its expression appears developmentally regulated, being at higher levels in the pathogenic asexual stages than in the sexual forms of parasite that are responsible for transmission to the mosquito vector. Within asexual parasites, PfPKA activity can be readily detected in schizonts. Similar to endogenous PKA activity of noninfected red blood cells, the parasite enzyme can be stimulated by cAMP and inhibited by protein kinase inhibitor.Importantly, ex vivo treatment of infected erythrocytes with the classical PKA-C inhibitor H89 leads to a block in parasite growth. This suggests that the PKA activities of infected red blood cells are essential for parasite multiplication. Finally, structural considerations suggest that drugs targeting the parasite, rather than the erythrocyte enzyme, might be developed that could help in the fight against malaria.

Evidence for the presence of an NF-kappaB signal transduction system in Dictyostelium discoideum.

The Rel/NF-kappaB family of transcription factors and regulators has so far only been described in vertebrates and arthropods, where they mediate responses to many extracellular signals. No counterparts of genes coding for such proteins have been identified in the Caenorhabditis elegans genome and no NF-kappaB activity was found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We describe here the presence of an NF-kappaB transduction pathway in the lower eukaryote Dictyostelium discoideum. Using antibodies raised against components of the mammalian NF-kappaB pathway, we demonstrate in Dictyostelium cells extracts the presence of proteins homologous to Rel/NF-kappaB, IkappaB and IKK components. Using gel-shift experiments in nuclear extracts of developing Dictyostelium cells, we demonstrate the presence of proteins binding to kappaB consensus oligonucleotides and to a GC-rich kappaB-like sequence, lying in the promoter of cbpA, a developmentally regulated Dictyostelium gene encoding the Ca(2+)-binding protein CBP1. Using immunofluorescence, we show specific nuclear translocation of the p65 and p50 homologues of the NF-kappaB transcription factors as vegetatively growing cells develop to the slug stage. Taken together, our results strongly indicate the presence of a complete NF-kappaB signal transduction system in Dictyostelium discoideum that could be involved in the developmental process.

Stress-activated protein kinases are negatively regulated by cell density.

Stimulation by UV irradiation, TNFalpha, as well as PDGF or EGF activates the JNK/SAPK signalling pathway in mouse fibroblasts. This results in the phosphorylation of the N-terminal domain of c-Jun, increasing its transactivation potency. Using an antibody that specifically recognizes c-Jun phosphorylated at Ser63, we show that culture confluency drastically inhibited c-Jun N-terminal phosphorylation due to the inhibition of the JNK/SAPK pathway. Transfection experiments demonstrate that the inhibition occurs at the same level as, or upstream of, the small G-proteins cdc42 and Rac1. In contrast, the classical MAPK pathway was insensitive to confluency. The inhibition of JNK/SAPK activation depended on the integrity of the actin microfilament network. These results were confirmed and extended in monolayer wounding experiments. After PDGF, EGF or UV stimulation, c-Jun was predominantly phosphorylated in cells bordering the wound, which are the cells that move to occupy the wounded area. Thus, modulation of the stress-dependent signal cascade by confluency will restrict c-Jun N-terminal phosphorylation in response to mitogenic or chemotactic agents to cells that border a wounded area.

Functional analysis of the catalytic subunit of Dictyostelium PKA in vivo.

The catalytic subunit of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) from Dictyostelium discoideum contains several domains, including an unusually long N-terminal extension preceding a highly conserved catalytic core. We transformed the aggregationless PkaC-null strain with several deletion constructs of both domains. Strains transformed with genes expressing catalytically-inactive polypeptides could not rescue development. Cotransformation with constructs encoding the N-terminal extension and the catalytic core, both unable to rescue development by themselves, yielded transformants able to proceed to late development. A 27-amino acid long hydrophobic region, immediately upstream of the catalytic core, was found indispensable for PKA function. A putative role of this sequence in the acquisition of the active conformation of the protein is discussed.

The catalytic subunit of Dictyostelium cAMP-dependent protein kinase -- role of the N-terminal domain and of the C-terminal residues in catalytic activity and stability.

The C subunit of Dictyostelium cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) is unusually large (73 kDa) due to the presence of 330 amino acids N-terminal to the conserved catalytic core. The sequence following the core, including a C-terminal -Phe-Xaa-Xaa-Phe-COOH motif, is highly conserved. We have characterized the catalytic activity and stability of C subunits mutated in sequences outside the catalytic core and we have analyzed their ability to interact with the R subunit and with the heat-stable protein-kinase inhibitor PKI. Mutants carrying deletions in the N-terminal domain displayed little difference in their kinetic properties and retained their capacity to be inhibited by R subunit and by PKI. In contrast, the mutation of one or both of the phenylalanine residues in the C-terminal motif resulted in a decrease of catalytic activity and stability of the proteins. Inhibition by the R subunit or by PKI were however unaffected. Sequence-comparison analysis of other protein kinases revealed that a -Phe-Xaa-Xaa-Phe- motif is present in many Ser/Thr protein kinases, although its location at the very end of the polypeptide is a particular feature of the PKA family. We propose that the presence of this motif may serve to identify isoforms of protein kinases.

A set of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies reveals major differences in post-translational modification of the rat HNF1 and vHNF1 homeoproteins.

The related homeodomain-containing transcription factors HNF1 (HNF1 alpha) and vHNF1 (HNF1 beta) recognise common target DNA sequences in the regulatory regions of many genes and are expressed in several parenchymal cell types, predominantly in liver, kidney, intestine and pancreas. HNF1-null mutant mice, with a wild-type vHNF1 gene, develop normally, but die within a few weeks of birth with severe liver and kidney failure. Humans with a mutation in the HNF1 alpha gene develop non-insulin dependent diabetes on maturity (MODY 3). To determine distinctive roles for each of these proteins we produced a set of polyclonal sera and monoclonal antibodies, directed against different parts of the rat HNF1 and vHNF1 proteins. These antibodies reveal that HNF1 is present in vivo as a heterogeneous mixture of 92-98 kDa molecular mass polypeptides, a mass higher than that expected from its amino acid sequence. vHNF1 is present in the form of two isoforms of roughly the expected molecular masses, 65 and 68 kDa. In addition, some antibodies prepared against bacterially-produced HNF1 recognise vHNF1 but not HNF1, in liver and kidney extracts. Hence, we present the first evidence for differential post-translational modification of HNF1 and vHNF1 proteins.

Initial characterization of anosmin-1, a putative extracellular matrix protein synthesized by definite neuronal cell populations in the central nervous system.

The KAL gene is responsible for the X-chromosome linked form of Kallmann's syndrome in humans. Upon transfection of CHO cells with a human KAL cDNA, the corresponding encoded protein, KALc, was produced. This protein is N-glycosylated, secreted in the cell culture medium, and is localized at the cell surface. Several lines of evidence indicate that heparan-sulfate chains of proteoglycan(s) are involved in the binding of KALc to the cell membrane. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies to the purified KALc were generated. They allowed us to detect and characterize the protein encoded by the KAL gene in the chicken central nervous system at late stages of embryonic development. This protein is synthesized by definite neuronal cell populations including Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, mitral cells in the olfactory bulbs and several subpopulations in the optic tectum and the striatum. The protein, with an approximate molecular mass of 100 kDa, was named anosmin-1 in reference to the deficiency of the sense of smell which characterizes the human disease. Anosmin-1 is likely to be an extracellular matrix component. Since heparin treatment of cell membrane fractions from cerebellum and tectum resulted in the release of the protein, we suggest that one or several heparan-sulfate proteoglycans are involved in the binding of anosmin-1 to the membranes in vivo.

Presence of virion protein x (Vpx) of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac 251 in target cells in vivo.

Localization of virion-associated protein x (Vpx) of SIVmac 251 was studied in lymph nodes and liver of six SIVmac-infected monkeys. Vpx was found associated with the network of follicular dendritic cells and macrophages in lymph nodes and/or livers from five out of six animals by immunohistochemistry. Although the humoral response to Vpx occurs in only 50% of the animals, the presence of Vpx in target cell or antibodies to Vpx in all the monkeys studied, suggests that Vpx may be necessary for viral replication in vivo.

Characterization of monoclonal antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 envelope glycoproteins.

Twelve murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (isolate ROD) envelope glycoproteins have been generated and characterized. Nine MAbs were specific to the external gp125 and three reacted with the transmembrane gp36. A large majority of MAbs displayed a significant affinity for the native gp140 precursor and were shown to bind to viral antigens on the surface of fixed HIV-2-infected cells. In Western blot analysis, the 12 MAbs showed varying profiles of cross-reactivity, but none of the MAbs cross-reacted with the HIV-1LAI envelope. Six MAbs reacted exclusively with the homologous HIV-2ROD isolate whereas only two MAbs displayed cross-reactivity with HIV-2ROD, HIV-2EHO, and SIVmac251. The four other MAbs cross-reacted with either HIV-2EHO or SIVmac251. Results of competitive binding assays indicated that the three anti-gp36 MAbs shared the same competition group, whereas at least eight competition groups were defined with the nine anti-gp125 MAbs. The epitopes of the three anti-gp36 and four anti-gp125 MAbs have been delineated using synthetic peptides or by immunological screening of an SIVmac251 peptide library expressed in yeast. The anti-gp36 MAbs are directed against the same domain of the transmembrane gp36 corresponding to the major antigenic determinant of HIV-2 and HIV-1. The four anti-gp125 MAbs recognize four distinct epitopes localized in the V2, V3, and C1 domains. None of the 12 MAbs displayed neutralizing activity against HIV-2ROD, including the 2 MAbs directed against the V2 and V3 domains.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Conformational changes induced in the envelope glycoproteins of the human and simian immunodeficiency viruses by soluble receptor binding.

We have investigated the molecular basis of biological differences observed among cell line-adapted isolates of the human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in response to receptor binding by using a soluble form of CD4 (sCD4) as a receptor mimic. We find that sCD4 binds to the envelope glycoproteins of all of the HIV-1 isolates tested with affinities within a threefold range, whereas those of the HIV-2 and SIV isolates have relative affinities for sCD4 two- to eightfold lower than those of HIV-1. Treatment of infected cells with sCD4 induced the dissociation of gp120 from gp41 and increased the exposure of a cryptic gp41 epitope on all of the HIV-1 isolates. By contrast, neither dissociation of the outer envelope glycoprotein nor increased exposure of the transmembrane glycoprotein was observed when sCD4 bound to HIV-2- or SIV-infected cells. Moreover, immunoprecipitation with sCD4 resulted in the coprecipitation of the surface and transmembrane glycoproteins from virions of the HIV-2 and SIV isolates, whereas the surface envelope glycoprotein alone was precipitated from HIV-1. However, treatment of HIV-1-, HIV-2-, and SIV-infected cells with sCD4 did result in an increase in exposure of their V2 and V3 loops, as detected by enhanced antibody reactivity. This demonstrates that receptor binding to the outer envelope glycoprotein induces certain conformational changes which are common to all of these viruses and others which are restricted to cell line-passaged isolates of HIV-1.

Probing the structure of the V2 domain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 surface glycoprotein gp120 with a panel of eight monoclonal antibodies: human immune response to the V1 and V2 domains.

We have analyzed a panel of eight murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that depend on the V2 domain for binding to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gp120. Each MAb is sensitive to amino acid changes within V2, and some are affected by substitutions elsewhere. With one exception, the MAbs were not reactive with peptides from the V2 region, or only poorly so. Hence their ability to bind recombinant strain IIIB gp120 depended on the preservation of native structure. Three MAbs cross-reacted with strain RF gp120, but only one cross-reacted with MN gp120, and none bound SF-2 gp120. Four MAbs neutralized HIV-1 IIIB with various potencies, and the one able to bind MN gp120 neutralized that virus. Peptide serology indicated that antibodies cross-reactive with the HxB2 V1 and V2 regions are rarely present in HIV-1-positive sera, but the relatively conserved segment between the V1 and V2 loops was recognized by antibodies in a significant fraction of sera. Antibodies able to block the binding of V2 MAbs to IIIB or MN gp120 rarely exist in sera from HIV-1-infected humans; more common in these sera are antibodies that enhance the binding of V2 MAbs to gp120. This enhancement effect of HIV-1-positive sera can be mimicked by several human MAbs to different discontinuous gp120 epitopes. Soluble CD4 enhanced binding of one V2 MAb to oligomeric gp120 but not to monomeric gp120, perhaps by inducing conformational changes in the oligomer.

Identification of a neutralizing domain in the external envelope glycoprotein of simian immunodeficiency virus.

Two murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), designated MATG2014 and MATG2033, were generated. They are reactive with the external envelope glycoprotein gp130 of the simian immunodeficiency virus of macaque monkey (SIVmac251), and display a cell-free virus neutralizing activity in vitro. In addition, MATG2014 cross-reacts with HIV-2Rod gp140. Epitope mapping of these MAbs was performed by screening and SIVmac peptide library expressed in yeast and confirmed using synthetic peptides. MATG2014 and MATG2033 recognize two overlapping epitopes localized in an 18 residue domain between amino acid 171 and 188 of the SIVmac251 gp130. Sera from experimentally SIV-infected macaques are immunoreactive with this neutralizing domain. Sequence comparison with related SIV and HIV-2 viral strains indicates a low variability of this region, consistent with the cross-reactivity of MATG2014 with HIV-2Rod gp140. This domain should then be considered in designing experimental vaccines.

Clonal analysis of murine B cell response to the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV1)-gag p17 and p25 antigens.

The antigenicity of HIV-gag p17 and p25 proteins was analyzed using a panel of 52 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) derived from 17 independent fusion experiment protocols performed in 12 different laboratories. These mAb were tested for their capacity to bind peptides corresponding to sequences of HIV1-BRU-gag p17 and p25. Thirty-five overlapping peptides (P1 to P35) totally covering the p17 and p25 proteins were used. This study allowed us to identify four immunodominant regions inducing B cell response, two on p17 corresponding to P2 and P13 (amino acids 11-25 and 121-132, respectively) and two on p25 corresponding to P21 and P28-P29-P30 (a.a. 201-218 and 285-320 respectively). According to secondary structure predictions, peptides P2 and P21 contained hydrophilic alpha helix folded regions whereas P13 sequence presented a beta turn propensity. These regions and the P28-30 region were also predicted to be easily accessible to mAb. Several other p25-derived peptides: P15 (a.a. 142-156), P16 (a.a. 148-162), P19 (a.a. 176-192), P22 (a.a. 219-233) and P23 (a.a. 233-253) were recognized by mAb. No p17-derived peptide other than P2, P13 and P12 (a.a. 111-123) was found to react with mAb. Cross-blocking studies between mAb, suggested the existence of more than four distinct epitopic areas on p17 and eight on p25.

Epitope recognition of conserved HIV envelope sequences by human cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

CTL constitute an essential part of the immune response against the HIV. CTL recognize peptides derived from viral proteins together with the MHC class I molecules on the surface of infected cells. The CTL response could be important in prevention or control of infection with HIV by destroying virus-producing cells. In this study we have attempted to identify peptide epitopes recognized by HIV-specific CTL. Using synthetic peptides, we have identified six conserved peptidic epitopes on the gp120 envelope glycoprotein recognized by polyclonal human CTL in association with HLA-A2 class I transplantation Ag. These results were confirmed by two approaches: i) blocking of CTL activities with antibodies specific for three of these conserved peptides; and ii) construction of doubly transfected P815-A2 target cells, using deletions of the HIV env gene. Vaccination or immunotherapy in HLA-A2 individuals can thus be considered using highly conserved HIV env peptidic sequences.

Expression in yeast of a cDNA clone encoding a transmembrane glycoprotein gp41 fragment (a.a. 591-642) bearing the major immunodominant domain of human immunodeficiency virus.

A cDNA clone corresponding to the gp41 gene fragment nucl. 7573-7730 of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was selected from a random HIV-1 genomic library expressed in yeast. This clone encodes a 52-residue long peptide (amino acid (a.a.)) 591-642) bearing the major immunodominant domain (a.a. 598-609) of the HIV-1 transmembrane glycoprotein gp41. Expression of the recombinant peptide pSE-env591-642 was driven by the alpha-mating factor leader sequence contained in a plasmid pSE-x allowing the synthesis and secretion of foreign gene product in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Time-course analysis of the secretion into culture medium revealed an optimal production of the glycoprotein fragment at 28-30 h with no observable cytotoxicity. The secreted peptide is highly glycosylated with NH2-terminal heterogeneity probably due to different post-translational modifications. The secreted peptide shows an extreme antigenicity since in ELISA assays, as few as 5 microliters/well of crude supernatant are sufficient to obtain a strong detection by monoclonal antibodies or by 100% of sera from HIV-infected individuals. The purified glycopeptide pSE-env591-642 binds to a monoclonal antibody directed against the immunodominant epitope (a.a. 603-609) with an affinity similar to that of the complete glycoprotein gp160 (Kd values within the 10(-10) M range) and with a 100-fold higher affinity than that of a linear peptide fragment SP-env584-609. These results indicate that overexpression in yeast can efficiently provide an abundant source of highly antigenic gp41 protein fragment pSE-env591-642 which retains the antigenic properties of the native gp160 protein. Such a recombinant peptide should therefore be considered as a good candidate for antigen in HIV detection tests.

Targeted killing of yeast expressing a HIV-1 peptide by antibody-conjugated glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase.

The epitope recognized by monoclonal antibody directed against the HIV-1 recombinant gp160 protein was precisely delineated by using a number of peptides comprising amino acid positions 302-330 of the protein. Two different enzymes, glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase, were then coupled to distinct antibody molecules and the efficacy of the immunoenzymes in killing yeast cells which express the recognized peptide was evaluated by flow cytometry analysis. The antibody-glucose oxidase conjugate alone was cytotoxic only at large doses (over 35 micrograms/ml) while in the presence of the antibody-horseradish peroxidase conjugate, killing was observed at nine times lower concentrations (4 micrograms/ml). The procedure described here may provide a new immunotherapy tool for microbial infection.