Evaluation of affordable screening markers to detect CD4+ T-cell counts below 200 cells/mul among HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate validity of WHO staging, low body mass index (BMI) and anaemia in detecting HIV-infected adults with CD4+ T-cell counts < 200 cells/microl. METHODS: Between October 1995 and April 2006, we screened Ugandans aged 16 or older at enrollment into an open cohort. We analysed highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART)-naïve HIV-infected patients with WHO stages 1-3 and complete data in a secondary cross-sectional study. Low BMI was a BMI < 18.5 kg/m(2). Anaemia was a haemoglobin level < 11 or 12 g/dl among women and men respectively. RESULTS: Among 2892 HAART-naïve patients, the median age was 32 years. 71% were women, 54% had WHO stage 3 AIDS, 34% had anaemia, 16% had a low BMI and 43% had CD4+ T-cell counts < 200 cells/microl. WHO stage 3 compared to combined WHO stages 1 and 2 had a sensitivity (95% CI) of 70% (67, 72) and a specificity of 57% (55, 60) respectively to detect CD4+ T-cell counts < 200 cells/microl. Anaemia compared to normal haemoglobin had sensitivity (95% CI) of 47% (44, 50) and a specificity of 76% (74, 78). Low BMI compared to normal BMI had sensitivity (95% CI) of 23% (20, 25) and a specificity of 89% (87, 90) against CD4+ T-cell counts < 200 cells/microl. CONCLUSION: Only WHO stage 3 had reasonably high sensitivity in detecting CD4+ T-cell counts below 200 cells/microl in this setting. Targeted low-cost CD4 testing strategies are urgently needed to detect patients eligible for HAART in rural Africa and other resource-limited settings.

The effect of tuberculin skin testing on viral load and anti-mycobacterial immune responses in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether tuberculin skin testing (TST) is associated with an increase in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) viral load, and to examine the effect of TST on anti-mycobacterial immune responses. DESIGN: A nested cohort study of HIV-1-infected adults. METHOD: Forty-two participants (21 TST-positive and 21 TST-negative) from a larger cohort were recruited to the study. Blood was collected for CD4+ T-cell count, whole blood was cultured, and plasma saved for viral load. These measurements were taken before, 3 days after, 3 months after, and 3 months plus 3 days after TST. Cytokine responses to culture filtrate proteins (CFP) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) were examined in the whole blood assay. RESULTS: Twenty-nine participants attended all four visits. No statistically significant change in viral load, CD4+ T-cell count, or cytokine response to PHA was observed at any visit. However, TST was associated with a transient increase in the interferon-gamma response to CFP and a lasting increase in the interleukin-5 response to CFP. CONCLUSION: There appeared to be a systemic effect of TST on the anti-tuberculosis immune response.

Diarrhea, CD4 counts and enteric infections in a community-based cohort of HIV-infected adults in Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: To examine relationships between diarrhoea, CD4 cell counts and stool pathogens in a community-based cohort of HIV-infected adults in Uganda. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Stool specimens, obtained between October 1995 and December 1997, were linked to patients' symptoms and laboratory results. The relationship between CD4 counts and symptoms was tested using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test and those between organisms and diarrhoea using first a univariate Mantel-Haenszel analysis and then a logistic regression model adjusted for CD4 count and multiple organisms. RESULTS: 1,213 HIV-infected individuals (70% women, median CD4 cell count at enrollment 215 cells/microl) were followed for 1,224 person years of observation (pyo). 484 stool samples were examined, 357 from patients with diarrhoea. The rate of diarrhoea was 661 episodes per 1,000 pyo. CD4 counts were significantly lower in individuals with diarrhoea than those without (P < 0.001, Wilcoxon rank-sum test). Forty-nine percent of diarrhoeal stools and 39% of stools from asymptomatic patients contained enteric pathogens. The most frequent isolates were helminths (29.5% of all stools), followed by bacteria (19.2%) and then protozoa (8.9%). Rates of isolation of diarrhoea-associated pathogens were 29% from diarrhoeal stools and 17% from asymptomatic stools (P = 0.01, chi(2) test). The association between diarrhoea and infection with bacteria or protozoa was weak and there was no association with helminths. Cryptosporidium parvum infection alone was associated with low CD4 counts. CONCLUSIONS: Diarrhoea was common and most strongly associated with low CD4 counts. Bacteria were frequently found, even in stools from asymptomatic individuals. Over two-thirds of diarrhoeal episodes were undiagnosed, suggesting that unidentified agents or primary HIV enteropathy are important causes of diarrhoea in this population.

Operational assessment of isoniazid prophylaxis in a community AIDS service organisation in Uganda.

SETTING: Isoniazid therapy was shown to be 70% effective at preventing tuberculosis in HIV-infected, PPD-positive Ugandan adults, but the feasibility of implementation outside an efficacy trial has not been established. OBJECTIVE: To study uptake, adherence and feasibility of a 6-month course of isoniazid preventive therapy in community-based HIV clinics in Uganda. DESIGN: Observational cohort study describing selection of patients and adherence to isoniazid 300 mg daily. Adherence was measured by clinic attendance, pill counts and urine isoniazid metabolite testing. Implementation was costed on a service delivery basis. RESULTS: Of 1597 cohort members, 22% were PPD-positive. Over 18 months, 193 PPD-positive individuals were assessed for prophylaxis and 98 (51%) were enrolled. Of those enrolled, 74 (76%) completed their course of isoniazid therapy, and 80% were fully adherent. Symptoms or previous treatment for tuberculosis and suspicion of tuberculous lymphadenopathy were the main reasons for exclusion. The additional cost of providing this service was US $14,549. CONCLUSION: Clinics specialising in the care of persons with HIV/AIDS can successfully implement isoniazid prophylaxis. Difficulties in excluding active tuberculosis and the costs of running the programme may limit its widespread implementation.

Comparative loss and maturation of peripheral blood dendritic cell subpopulations in African and non-African HIV-1-infected patients.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify the percentage of the two major subpopulations of blood dendritic cells (DC) in HIV-1-seropositive Ugandan individuals infected with non-clade B viruses and compare this with that seen in clade B HIV-1 infected non-African individuals. DC maturation/activation status was also investigated via the expression of CD86. METHODS: The percentage of blood DC was quantified by using flow cytometry. DC were identified as the lineage (CD3, CD14, CD16, CD19, CD20, CD56)-negative, HLA-DR-positive population and the two major subpopulations were differentiated by CD11c expression. RESULTS: The percentage of blood DC was reduced significantly in HIV-1-seropositive African individuals when compared with controls (0.21 and 0.39% respectively). A similar reduction was also seen in non-African patients residing in the UK (0.19% compared with 0.36% for controls). However, there was no selective loss in either CD11c-positive or CD11c-negative subpopulations. The percentage of blood DC expressing CD86 was significantly greater in HIV-1-seropositive individuals when compared with controls and the increased expression was largely confined to CD11c-negative DC. CONCLUSIONS: Africans infected with non-clade B HIV-1 showed similar reductions in the percentage of blood DC to non-Africans infected with clade B viruses. There was no selective loss of either DC subpopulation, suggesting that the ability of DC to acquire and present antigens or to produce interferon-alpha may both be impaired in HIV-1 infection.

Increasing rates of malarial fever with deteriorating immune status in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults.

BACKGROUND: Falciparum malaria and HIV-1 infection are two of the most important health problems facing sub-Saharan Africa. No convincing evidence of an association between symptomatic malaria and HIV-1 infection has been found. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of HIV-associated immunosuppression on malarial fever rates. DESIGN: An observational cohort study in HIV-specific, primary healthcare clinics in Entebbe, Uganda, on 1371 HIV-1-infected adults participating in a randomized trial of 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine. METHODS: Cohort members underwent routine 6 monthly surveillance and had open clinic access when sick. Episodes of fever were assessed according to standardized protocols. Rates of malaria are described according to HIV immune status determined by CD4 T cell counts. RESULTS: Incidence rates of Plasmodium falciparum malarial fever showed a marked inverse relationship with CD4 T cell count; 140, 93 and 57 cases per 1000 pyo for CD4 T cell groups < 200, 200--499 and > 500 respectively, P < 0.001. Malarial fever definitions incorporating parasite density criteria (derived from asymptomatic surveillance) to correct for chance findings of fever and P. falciparum parasitaemia, did not affect the association of incidence rates with immunosuppression. CONCLUSION: These data support an interaction between symptomatic P. falciparum and HIV. Emphasis on mosquito avoidance measures should be an important component of education and counselling of HIV/AIDS patients in malaria-endemic areas, and suggests an additional HIV-related public health problem in Africa.

Rhodococcus equi and HIV-1 infection in Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: To describe three cases of Rhodococcus equi infection in a cohort of HIV-1 infected adults in Entebbe, Uganda and to compare this to the rates and presentation of tuberculosis in this cohort. METHODS: Consecutive HIV-1 infected adults registering with a community HIV/AIDS clinic in Entebbe were enrolled in a cohort between October 1995 and June 1998 as part of an intervention trial of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Participants were routinely reviewed every 6 months and had open access to the clinic when unwell. Standard protocols were followed for investigation and management of illness. Microbiological investigations followed standard procedures. RESULTS: 1372 (71% female) study participants were followed for 2141 person years of observation (pyo). Rhodococcus equi was isolated from three study participants from blood, a lymph node aspirate and stool. The individuals were undergoing investigation of acute pneumonia, acute cough with cervical lymphadenopathy and chronic fever with wasting, respectively. The clinical features of these cases are described. All had a CD4 T-cell count of <300/ml. The rate of R. equi infection in the cohort was 1.4/1000 pyo. There were 132 cases of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis in the cohort which were diagnosed either microbiologically or clinically. The rate of laboratory confirmed mycobacterial disease was 50.1/1000 pyo. The ratio of mycobacterial disease to R. equi disease was 36:1 (95% CI 11-113:1). CONCLUSIONS: Rhodococcus equi infection occurs in HIV-1 infected adults in Africa. The infection is clinically indistinguishable from pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis in the cohort described here. Although the rate of R. equi disease is much less than that of tuberculosis, it is important to consider it in the differential diagnosis of tuberculous infection in cases which are smear negative. Rhodococcus equi infection is probably underdiagnosed in Africa due to a lack of microbiological facilities and its resemblance to common commensal organisms.

23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae is a frequent and serious problem for HIV-immunosuppressed adults. Vaccination is recommended in the USA and Europe, but there are no prospective data that show vaccine efficacy. METHODS: 1392 (937 female) HIV-1-infected adults in Entebbe, Uganda, were enrolled. 697 received 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine and 695 received placebo. The primary endpoint was first event invasive pneumococcal disease. Secondary endpoints included vaccine serogroup-specific invasive disease, all (probable and definite) pneumococcal events, all-cause pneumonia, and death. FINDINGS: First invasive events occurred in 25 individuals (24 bacteraemias, one pyomyositis), 15 in the vaccine arm and ten in the placebo arm (hazard ratio [HR] 1.47; 95% CI 0.7-3.3). 22 isolates (88%) were of vaccine-specific serogroups with 15 events in the vaccine arm compared with seven in the placebo arm (HR 2.10; 0.9-5.2). All pneumococcal events had a similar distribution (20 vs 14; HR 1.41; 0.7-2.8) though all-cause pneumonia was significantly more frequent in the vaccine arm (40 vs 21; HR 1.89; 1.1-3.2). Mortality was unaffected by vaccination. INTERPRETATION: 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination is ineffective in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults and probably has little, or no, public health value elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. Increased rates of pneumococcal disease in vaccine recipients may necessitate a reappraisal of this intervention in other settings.

Cigarette smoking among 60 Makerere University students; 1988/89

A descriptive study to determine the magnitude and factors in cigarette smoking was carried out on 60 Makerere University students; 1988/89. The prevalence of cigarette smoking was 21.7 per cent. The major factors in cigarette smoking were sex and marital status. Men may be the ones who pass over the behaviour to women. It suggested that the prevalence of cigarette smoking can be reduced by public health workers persuading and working with government against smoking. A more realistic view about smoking habits can be obtained by studying larger adolescent populations in Uganda