Spinal Injuries in the Overhead Athlete.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Treatment of overhead athletes requires a systematic approach that will make an accurate diagnosis, deliver effective treatment, and make timely and safe return to sport. RECENT FINDINGS: New data has shown success rates and return to play effectiveness after different types of cervical and lumbar surgery. Cervical foraminotomy has been shown to have the highest rate and fastest return to play, but with the highest incidence of need for revision surgery. Cervical artificial disc replacement has shown promising results in the general population and is being done more commonly in elite athletes, but has an unknown risk for failure. Cervical fusion is a well-established and effective treatment, but has the longest healing time and risk for adjacent level pathology. In the lumbar spine, discectomy has a long and proven track record, fusion is rarely performed but can be effective, and artificial disc replacement is extremely rare in an elite athlete. An effective and comprehensive approach can diagnose, treat, and return overhead athletes to competitive play.

Cervical Disc Herniations, Radiculopathy, and Myelopathy.

The key to successful treatment of elite athletes is optimizing the medical care at every step: injury prevention and sport-specific training; comprehensive history and physical examination; high-quality and complete diagnostic studies; accurate diagnosis; control and completion of rehabilitation program; minimally invasive, safe, and effective surgeries; risk assessment for return to sport; guided and gradual return to sport; and continued rehabilitation and exercise program after return to sport.

Asymptomatic Spinal Cord Compression: Is Surgery Necessary to Return to Play.

Advising athletes with asymptomatic cervical canal stenosis on their return to active play is a topic of considerable debate, with no definitive guidelines in place. Once cervical canal stenosis is identified, often through imaging following other injuries, it is difficult to predict the risk of future injury upon return to play in both contact and collision sports. Consequently, the decision can be a complicated one for the athlete, family, and physician alike. In this article, we identify radiographical and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based criteria that may distinguish athletes "at-risk" for more severe consequences due to asymptomatic cervical canal stenosis from those who are safe to return to play. Using a Torg-Pavlov ratio <0.7 and MRI metrics, namely a minimal disc-level canal diameter <8 mm, a cord-to-canal area ratio >0.8, or space available for the cord <1.2 mm, can help when making these difficult decisions. Counseling can be a critical asset to patients with cervical stenosis who have had a previous episode of cervical cord neuropraxia, especially when they are involved in high-risk sports such as American football and rugby. We believe that while this remains an area of continued concern and controversy, improved MRI criteria will be a useful springboard for further studies, especially in the elite athlete population.

Evidence-Based Management of Spinal Conditions in the Elite Athlete.

Spinal injuries are common and are a significant burden in the professional athlete population. From single-level disk herniation to career-ending fractures, the consequences of these conditions vary widely. Both contact and noncontact injuries can substantially affect the health and performance of elite athletes competing in a variety of sports. The nature and severity of these injuries have great influence on the prospects for full recovery and successful return to play. Common spinal injuries, management decisions, and return to play prospects are important considerations in the professional athlete population.

The Management of Acute Lumbar Stress Reactions of the Pedicle and Pars in Professional Athletes Playing Collision Sports.

Acute stress reactions in the lumbar spine most commonly occur in athletes at the pars interarticularis followed by the pedicle. These reactions occur as a result of repetitive microtrauma from supraphysiological loads applied to the lumbar spine. Characteristic motions such as trunk extension and twisting are also thought to play a role and may be sport-specific. Other risk factors include increased lumbar lordosis, hamstring and thoracolumbar fascia tightness, and abdominal weakness. On physical examination, pain is typically reproduced with lumbar hyperextension. Currently, magnetic resonance imaging or nuclear imaging remain the most sensitive imaging modalities for identifying acute lesions. In the elite athlete, management of these conditions can be challenging, particularly in those playing collision sports such as American football, hockey, or rugby. Nonoperative treatment is the treatment of choice with rehabilitation programs focused on pain-free positioning and progressive strengthening. Operative treatment is rare, but may be warranted for patients symptomatic for >12 months. Specialized diagnosis protocols as well as treatment and return to play guidelines from 4 physicians treating elite athletes playing collision sports are presented and reviewed.

Updated Return-to-Play Recommendations for Collision Athletes After Cervical Spine Injury: A Modified Delphi Consensus Study With the Cervical Spine Research Society.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have attempted to establish return-to-play (RTP) guidelines in collision sport athletes after cervical spine injury; however, recommendations have been limited by scant high-quality evidence and basic consensus survey methodologies. OBJECTIVE: To create relevant clinical statements regarding management in collision sport athletes after cervical spine injury, and establish consensus RTP recommendations. METHODS: Following the modified Delphi methodology, a 3 round survey study was conducted with spine surgeons from the Cervical Spine Research Society and National Football League team physicians in order to establish consensus guidelines and develop recommendations for cervical spine injury management in collision sport athletes. RESULTS: Our study showed strong consensus that asymptomatic athletes without increased magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) T2-signal changes following 1-/2- level anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) may RTP, but not after 3-level ACDF (84.4%). Although allowed RTP after 1-/2-level ACDF was noted in various scenarios, the decision was contentious. No consensus RTP for collision athletes after 2-level ACDF was noted. Strong consensus was achieved for RTP in asymptomatic athletes without increased signal changes and spinal canal diameter >10 mm (90.5%), as well as those with resolved MRI signal changes and diameter >13 mm (81.3%). No consensus was achieved in RTP for cases with pseudarthrosis following ACDF. Strong consensus supported a screening MRI before sport participation in athletes with a history of cervical spine injury (78.9%). CONCLUSION: This study provides modified Delphi process consensus statements regarding cervical spine injury management in collision sport athletes from leading experts in spine surgery, sports injuries, and cervical trauma. Future research should aim to elucidate optimal timelines for RTP, as well as focus on prevention of injuries.

Sagittal alignment after lumbar interbody fusion: comparing anterior, lateral, and transforaminal approaches.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective radiographic analysis. OBJECTIVE: To determine which lumbar interbody technique is most effective for restoring lordosis, increasing disk height, and reducing spondylolisthesis. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Lumbar interbody fusions are performed in hopes of increasing fusion potential, correcting deformity, and indirectly decompressing nerve roots. No published study has directly compared anterior, lateral, and transforaminal lumber interbody fusions in terms of ability to restore lordosis, increase disk height, and reduce spondylolisthesis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Lumbar interbody fusion techniques were retrospectively compared in terms of improvement of lordosis, disk height, and spondylolisthesis between preoperative and follow-up lateral radiographs. RESULTS: A total of 220 consecutive patients with 309 operative levels were compared by surgery type: anterior (184 levels), lateral (86 levels), and transforaminal (39 levels). Average follow-up was 19.2 months (range, 1-56 mo), with no statistical difference between the groups. Intragroup analysis showed that the anterior (4.5 degrees) and lateral (2.2 degrees) groups significantly improved lordosis from preoperative to follow-up, whereas the transforaminal (0.8 degrees) group did not. Intergroup analysis showed that the anterior group significantly improved lordosis more than both the lateral and transforaminal groups. The anterior (2.2 mm) and lateral (2.0 mm) groups both significantly improved disk height more than the transforaminal (0.5 mm) group. All 3 groups significantly reduced spondylolisthesis, with no difference between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: After lumbar interbody fusion, improvement of lordosis was significant for both the anterior and lateral groups, but not the transforaminal group. Intergroup analysis showed the anterior group had significantly improved lordosis compared to both the other groups. The anterior and lateral groups had significantly increased disk height compared to the transforaminal group. All the 3 groups significantly reduced spondylolisthesis, with no difference between the groups.

Return-to-play outcomes after microscopic lumbar diskectomy in professional athletes.

BACKGROUND: It has been shown a microscopic lumbar diskectomy (MLD) is effective in getting professional athletes back to their sport after a herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP). There is a need for more information on the time it takes professional athletes to return after surgery. PURPOSE: To determine average time for return to play and success in returning to play for professional athletes undergoing MLD. STUDY DESIGN: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. METHODS: Between 1996 and 2010, the senior authors treated 171 professional athletes for lumbar HNP. A retrospective review was performed using patient charts, operative reports, team medical records, and internet search. Eighty-five patients were treated with MLD, and 86 patients were treated nonoperatively. This study focused on the return to play of the operatively treated patients. Primary outcome measures were return rate and average return time, considering only patients whose sport is in season at specific postoperative time points. RESULTS: Of surgically treated patients, 89.3% returned to sport. The average time it took operative patients to return to their sport (return time) was 5.8 months. Progressive return data for surgically treated patients showed the percentage of athletes who returned increased from 50% at 3 months to 72% at 6 months to 77% at 9 months and 84% at 12 months. CONCLUSION: The chance a player returns to play after MLD is 50% at 3 months, 72% at 6 months, 77% at 9 months, and 84% at 12 months. The overall chance of returning to play at any point is 89%.

Access strategies for revision in anterior lumbar surgery.

STUDY DESIGN: Sixty-two consecutive patients undergoing anterior lumbar revision surgery from February 2000 to September 2007 were evaluated for approach strategies and complications. OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence of complications in these patients and to make recommendations on future revisions based on the results obtained. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Only 2 articles exist in the literature that address this situation and they have widely varying results in a small number of patients. This larger series may help give more certainty to the expectations for complications in patients undergoing revision anterior lumbar surgery. METHODS: A concurrent database was maintained on these 62 consecutive patients. Preoperative strategies were evaluated and complications were tabulated as they occurred and later analyzed to arrive at recommendations for future similar cases. RESULTS: Twenty-three patients had the same level revised and 39 patients had adjacent levels operated on. There were 3 venous injuries (4.8%), 3 arterial injuries (4.8%), and 1 ureteral injury (1.6%). All 3 arterial injuries occurred while approaching L3-L4 after L4 to S1 prior fusion or disc replacement. All 3 venous injuries and the ureteral injury occurred while approaching a previously operated level or levels. Six of these patients had the injuries repaired and the procedures completed with full recovery. One L5-S1 revision had the procedure aborted after a venous injury. There were no deaths. CONCLUSION: Although the incidence of complications in revisions is much greater than for index cases, the actual percentage of venous, arterial, and ureteral complications is certainly acceptable for patients who must have this type of surgery. Only very experienced access surgeons should attempt revision surgery.

Anterior instrumentation for thoracolumbar adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: do structural interbody grafts preserve sagittal alignment better than morselized rib autografts?

STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective, sequential cohort study of 34 patients treated by anterior instrumented fusion with single solid rod, single screw constructs with at least 2-year follow-up. Sixteen of the patients received structural grafts as interbody spacers in disc levels below T12, while the other 18 patients received only morselized rib autograft. OBJECTIVE: To determine if structural interbody grafts preserve sagittal alignment better than morselized rib autograft. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Some studies have shown that structural grafts are more effective in preserving sagittal alignment, while others have found them to be no more effective than morselized rib graft. METHODS: Anterior-posterior radiographs were measured for primary, secondary, and fractional Cobb curves, and C7-sacrum plumb lines. Lateral radiographs were measured for: T5-HIV (highest instrumented vertebrae), instrumented levels, LIV (lowest instrumented vertebrae)-S1, T12-LIV, and T12-S1 angles, C7-sacrum plumb lines, and LID-A (lowest instrumented disc-angle). RESULTS: The increase in kyphosis from preoperative to follow-up radiographs of the angle between T12-LIV was significantly more for the patients with morselized rib graft compared with those with structural grafts, 9 degrees and 1 degree, respectively (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The structural grafts placed in disc spaces below T12 were able to maintain sagittal alignment over this region, while the spines that received only morselized rib graft collapsed into kyphosis.

Vascular injury during anterior lumbar surgery.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: With the number of anterior lumbar procedures expected to increase significantly over the next few years, it is important for spine surgeons to have a good understanding about the incidence of vascular complications during these operations. PURPOSE: To determine the incidence of vascular injury in 1,315 consecutive cases undergoing anterior lumbar surgery at various levels from L2 to S1. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: Patients undergoing anterior lumbar surgery were studied. PATIENT SAMPLE: A total of 1,310 consecutive patients undergoing 1,315 anterior lumbar procedures between August 1997 and December 2002 were included in the study. OUTCOME MEASURES: All patients were evaluated for incidence of vascular injury during and immediately after surgery. METHOD: A concurrent database was maintained on all these cases. All the patients had distal pulse evaluation preoperatively. Patients with venous injuries were further analyzed to determine location and extent of injury, amount of blood loss, completion of the procedure and postoperative sequelae. Patients with pulse deficits or evidence of ischemia during or immediately after surgery were further analyzed in particular in relation to demographic, preoperative variables and management. RESULTS: Six patients were identified as having left iliac artery thrombosis (0.45%), and 19 had major vein lacerations (1.4%). CONCLUSION: This study shows that the incidence of vascular injury is relatively low (25 in 1,315 or 1.9%). Because only five of these patients experienced significant sequelae from the approach, it appears that anterior lumbar surgery is quite safe, although it must be carried out with utmost respect for the vessels to avoid possible catastrophic outcomes.

Left iliac artery thrombosis during anterior lumbar surgery.

To determine the incidence of left iliac artery thrombosis (LIAT), a prospective database was maintained on 1315 patients undergoing anterior lumbar surgery (ALS) between August 1997 and December 2002. All had distal pulse evaluation preoperatively. In the last 629 cases pulse oxymetry was used to monitor the distal circulation during and after surgery. Patients with pulse deficits or evidence of ischemia after surgery were further analyzed. Six patients were identified with LIAT (0.45%). Five were females and one was male, with ages ranging from 35 to 56 years. All had exposure at the L4-5. Five were diagnosed at surgery and one in the recovery room after posterior surgery. All except one had strong, palpable preoperative pulses. Pulse oxymetry confirmed the diagnosis in two patients, in whom it was not clinically evident. Four had successful thrombectomy; one had a femoro-femoral bypass and one had an axillo-femoral bypass. Two developed compartment syndrome. None had calcifications on preoperative X-rays. LIAT is an uncommon complication of ALS. Early identification and management can avoid long-term complications. Pulse oxymetry helps in its timely identification. Patients undergoing exposure at L4-5 and females are at greater risk.

Nerve monitoring changes related to iliac artery compression during anterior lumbar spine surgery.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: There are no studies in the literature that correlate compression of the iliac vessels resulting in obstruction of blood flow with changes in nerve monitoring parameters during anterior lumbar surgery. PURPOSE: To determine whether there is significant compression of the iliac vessels that can cause temporary nerve root ischemia or limb ischemia that could be responsible for loss of somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) while retractors are in place for exposure during anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF). SETTING: Patients coming to the operating room for ALIF from levels L2-L3 to L5-S1 would be studied for nerve monitoring changes during the procedure with particular attention to the intervals just before placement of a retractor, while the retractor was in place and immediately after removal of the retractor. PATIENT SAMPLE: Forty-five consecutive patients were studied for changes in SSEP and oxygen saturation (SaO(2)) while undergoing ALIF. OUTCOME MEASURES: Patients were considered to have lost saturation if the SaO(2) decreased to below 90%. Patients were considered to have abnormal SSEP with any increase in latency and decrease in amplitude. METHODS: SSEP and SaO(2) were monitored continuously and simultaneously before exposure of the disc spaces, during exposure with retractors in place and after removal of the retractors. RESULTS: Thirteen of 23 patients with exposure at L4-L5 had both loss of SSEP signals and loss of SaO(2) with exposure. All 13 patients had return to normal saturation and recovery of the SSEP signals within 15 minutes of removal of the retractors. Both of these are significant correlations (p<.001). CONCLUSION: This study showed that the majority (57%) of patients undergoing ALIF at the L4-L5 level are subject to compression of the left iliac vessels enough to cause desaturation distally as measured by pulse oxymetry. This vascular compromise, as well as the return to normal saturation, correlates with changes noted in SSEP soon after both deployment and removal of the retractors used for exposure. The mechanism appears to be a transient ischemic response. Failure of the SSEP signals to recover may be diagnostic of left iliac artery thrombosis.

Microscopic lumbar discectomy results for 60 cases in professional and Olympic athletes.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: There is no documented information indicating time for return to play after lumbar discectomy in professional and Olympic athletes. PURPOSE: To determine the rate of return to sport and the average time of recovery in elite athletes undergoing microscopic lumbar discectomy (MLD). STUDY DESIGN: Between 1984 and 1998, the senior author performed 60 MLDs on 59 professional and Olympic athletes with lumbar herniated nucleus pulposus. PATIENT SAMPLE: Sixty consecutive MLDs performed on professional and Olympic athletes were reviewed. OUTCOME MEASURES: The rate of return and the average time to return to sport were determined. Also, the distribution of pain and presence of neurologic deficits were recorded. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed. RESULTS: Follow-up indicated that all but 7 of the 60 cases had returned to their sport, including one who underwent a second MLD for a herniation at an adjacent level. The average time from surgery to return was 5.2 months for the entire group, with a range of 1 to 15 months. CONCLUSION: MLD was effective in correcting the problems that forced the athletes to seek help, and the time to return often depends on factors other than their medical condition. Postoperatively, a complete trunk stabilization rehabilitation program was effective in returning these athletes to a high level of competition.

Lymphangiomatosis of the spine: two cases requiring surgical intervention.

STUDY DESIGN: Two cases of lymphangiomatosis of the spine are presented. OBJECTIVES: To report two cases of lymphangiomatosis of the spine requiring surgical intervention and to review the literature. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Lymphangiomatosis is a rare childhood disease characterized by abnormal lymph tissue at multiple sites. Skeletal and visceral involvement are both common. Prognosis depends on the extent of extraskeletal disease. METHODS: Two cases of lymphangiomatosis causing neural compression and instability at the cervicothoracic junction are presented. Both patients underwent surgical decompression and stabilization. RESULTS: One patient died, whereas the other regained full function and activity. CONCLUSIONS: Surgery is indicated when lymphangiomatosis causes neural compression and instability of the spine. Surgical outcome is strongly influenced by extraskeletal involvement.

Clinical and radiographic outcomes of anterior lumbar interbody fusion using recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2.

STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, nonblinded, multicenter study of outcomes in patients undergoing single-level anterior lumbar discectomy and interbody fusion with InFUSE Bone Graft. OBJECTIVE: To determine the safety and effectiveness of InFUSE Bone Graft applied to an absorbable collagen sponge in anterior lumbar interbody fusion with threaded cortical allografts. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: In primates, InFUSE Bone Graft used with allograft dowels was shown to increase rates of interbody fusion by promoting osteoinduction and enhancing incorporation of the allograft. Recently, in a small series of human patients undergoing anterior lumbar interbody fusion with a tapered cylindrical metal fusion cage, InFUSE Bone Graft has been shown to promote osteoinduction and fusion. METHODS: Forty-six patients underwent a single-level anterior lumbar discectomy and interbody fusion at five investigational sites. They were randomly assigned to one of two groups, and the results in the investigational patients who received threaded cortical allograft dowels with InFUSE Bone Graft were compared with those in the control patients who received threaded allograft dowels with autogenous iliac crest bone graft. Patients' clinical outcomes were assessed using neurologic status, work status, and Oswestry Low Back Pain Disability, Short Form-36, and back and leg pain questionnaires. Anteroposterior, lateral, flexion-extension radiographs, and computed tomography scans were used to evaluate the progression of fusion at 6, 12, and 24 months after surgery. RESULTS: All patients who received InFUSE Bone Graft showed radiographic evidence of bony induction and early incorporation of the cortical allografts. All patients in this group had fusions at 12 months that remained fused at 24 months. At 12 and 24 months, the investigational group showed higher rates of fusion and improved neurologic status and back and leg pain when compared with the control group. There were no unanticipated adverse events related to the use of InFUSE Bone Graft. CONCLUSION: The use of InFUSE Bone Graft is a promising method of facilitating anterior intervertebral spinal fusion, decreasing pain, and improving clinical outcomes in patients who have undergone anterior lumbar fusion surgery with structural threaded cortical allograft bone dowels.

Lumbar disc injury in the athlete.

The lumbar spine is a highly vulnerable area for injury in a number of different sports. And while the incidence is significant and the time lost may be significant, probably the most important problems are related to the fear of spinal injuries and the need for a therapeutic plan. Lumbar pain is significant in many sports, but an organized diagnostic and therapeutic plan can prevent permanent injury, allowing full function and maximum performance.

Measurements of lumbopelvic lordosis using the pelvic radius technique as it correlates with sagittal spinal balance and sacral translation.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Maintenance of normal lumbar lordosis is important in the treatment of spinal disorders. Many attempts have been made to quantify normal sagittal spinal alignment and lordosis using a C7 plumb line and segmental angulations of the spinal vertebrae. Little attention has been given to pelvic compensation as it correlates to lumbar lordosis and overall sagittal spinal alignment. Better methods of measuring lordosis, which correlate with sagittal spinal balance and pelvic compensation, are needed in treating patients with spinal disorders. PURPOSE: To determine the correlation between lumbopelvic lordosis, pelvic rotation and sagittal spinal balance and standardize a method for measuring lumbopelvic lordosis, sacral translation, and sagittal spinal alignment. STUDY DESIGN: Sagittal alignments using the C7 plumb line, Cobb angles, sacral plumb line and the pelvic radius (PR) technique were used to measure standing 36-inch lateral radiographs of patients with various spinal disorders. PATIENT SAMPLE: A review of the records identified 62 patients with various spinal pathologies presenting to the (RGW) spine clinic that had standing lateral spine radiographs. Only radiographs that allowed positive identification of the C7 vertebral body, the entire thoracolumbar spine, the sacrum and both femoral heads were studied. These criteria allowed inclusion of 28 subjects in this study. The final population had 12 women and 16 men with an average age of 52 years (SD, 16.6 years; range, 20 to 84 years). OUTCOME MEASURES: No outcomes measures were used in this study. METHODS: Measurements for sagittal spinal balance and lumbopelvic lordosis were made on 36-inch standing lateral radiographs of adult patients. Measurements included the C7 plumb line, segmental angulations of spinal vertebrae (Cobb angles), sacral translation and the PR technique for lumbopelvic lordosis. Data were analyzed for significant correlation between lumbopelvic lordosis, sagittal spinal balance, sacral translation and total segmental lumbar lordosis using the Cobb method. RESULTS: Our population averaged 50 degrees of total segmental lumbar lordosis from L1 to S1 (SD, 14.3; maximum, 89.5; minimum, 17.9). Nearly 75% of total segmental lumbar lordosis measured from L1 to S1 can be accounted for through the L4 to S1 superior end plates and 47% through L5 to S1 superior end plates in our population. Total segmental lumbar lordosis correlated with total thoracic kyphosis (r=0.45, p=.008). Total segmental lumbar lordosis measured by the Cobb method significantly correlated with sagittal spinal balance (r=-0.35, p=.022) and sacral translation (r=0.41, p=.016). Measurements for lumbopelvic lordosis significantly correlated with sagittal spinal balance (r=-0.33, p=.042), sacral translation (r=-0.70, p=.00002) and total segmental lumbar lordosis (r=0.82, p<.000001). Measurements for sacral translation and sagittal spinal balance also correlated significantly (r=0.35, p=.034). CONCLUSIONS: Sacral translation, the C7 plumb line and lumbopelvic lordosis are useful measures for sagittal spinal balance. Lumbopelvic lordosis and sacral translation can be correlated to the sagittal spinal balance. Understanding these measurements and the range of lumbopelvic compensation can be extremely helpful in treating patients with spinal pathology and in avoidance of flatback deformity. Application of these measures would be especially helpful in the treatment of patients with spinal fusion, degenerative spondylosis, disc disease, fractures, and in the prevention of sagittal malalignment.