ABSTRACT
A focus on water quality has intensified globally, considering its critical role in sustaining life and ecosystems. Wastewater, reflecting societal development, profoundly impacts public health. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as a surveillance tool for detecting outbreaks early, monitoring infectious disease trends, and providing real-time insights, particularly in vulnerable communities. WBE aids in tracking pathogens, including viruses, in sewage, offering a comprehensive understanding of community health and lifestyle habits. With the rise in global COVID-19 cases, WBE has gained prominence, aiding in monitoring SARS-CoV-2 levels worldwide. Despite advancements in water treatment, poorly treated wastewater discharge remains a threat, amplifying the spread of water-, sanitation-, and hygiene (WaSH)-related diseases. WBE, serving as complementary surveillance, is pivotal for monitoring community-level viral infections. However, there is untapped potential for WBE to expand its role in public health surveillance. This review emphasizes the importance of WBE in understanding the link between viral surveillance in wastewater and public health, highlighting the need for its further integration into public health management.
ABSTRACT
Camelid single-domain antibodies (VHH) represent a promising class of immunobiologicals for therapeutic applications due to their remarkable stability, specificity, and therapeutic potential. To enhance the effectiveness of antivenoms for snakebites, various methods have been explored to address limitations associated with serum therapy, particularly focusing on mitigating local damage and ensuring sustainable production. Our study aimed to characterize the pharmacological profile and neutralization capacity of anti-Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) monomeric VHH (Genbank accessions: KC329718). Using a post-envenoming mouse model, we used intravital microscopy to assess leukocyte influx, measured CK and LDH levels, and conducted a histopathology analysis to evaluate VHH KC329718's ability to neutralize myotoxic activity. Our findings demonstrated that VHH KC329718 exhibited heterogeneous distribution in muscle tissue. Treatment with VHH KC329718 reduced leukocyte influx caused by BthTX-I (a Lys-49 PLA2) by 28 %, as observed through intravital microscopy. When administered at a 1:10 ratio [venom or toxin:VHH (w/w)], VHH KC329718 significantly decreased myotoxicity, resulting in a 35-40 % reduction in CK levels from BthTX-I and BthTX-II (an Asp-49 PLA2) and a 60 % decrease in CK levels from B. jararacussu venom. LDH levels also showed reductions of 60%, 80%, and 60% induced by BthTX-I, BthTX-II, and B. jararacussu venom, respectively. Histological analysis confirmed the neutralization potential, displaying a significant reduction in tissue damage and inflammatory cell count in mice treated with VHH KC329718 post B. jararacussu venom inoculation. This study underscores the potential of monomeric anti-PLA2 VHH in mitigating myotoxic effects, suggesting a promising avenue for the development of new generation antivenoms to address current therapeutic limitations.