Different adverse childhood experiences and adolescents' altruism: The mediating role of life history strategy.

INTRODUCTION: The present study sought to investigate whether the relationship between childhood trauma, childhood socioeconomic (SES), and adolescents' altruism were mediated by their life history strategies and different adverse childhood experiences may function diversely on altruism, with two waves of data collected 6 months apart in a longitudinal design among Chinese adolescents. METHODS: A total of 658 adolescents (Mage = 13.51, SD = 0.73 at T1) were recruited and completed the online survey; their life history strategies were measured by the Mini-K, the Delayed of Gratification Questionnaire (DOG), and the Chinese version of the Adolescent Risk-Taking Questionnaire (ARQ-RB) together, and their altruism was collected again after six months. RESULTS: After controlling for gender and their altruism at T1, the results showed that childhood trauma (i.e., emotional maltreatment, physical maltreatment), as well as low SES and fast life history strategy, were significantly negatively correlated with adolescents' altruism at T2. Importantly, life history strategy at T1 mediated the relationship between T1 emotional maltreatment, T1 low SES, and adolescents' altruism at T2. However, the effect of physical maltreatment on altruism was not mediated by life history strategy. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that emotional maltreatment and low SES can affect adolescents' altruism by influencing the formation of adolescents' life history strategies. The findings revealed the different influences of adverse childhood experiences on adolescents' altruism, which supplied new empirical evidence for the life history theory and provided certain reference values for cultivating adolescents' altruism.

Widening or convergence, the trajectories of health inequalities induced by childhood SES across the life course: Evidence from China.

This study aims to explore the trajectories of health inequalities induced by childhood SES across the life course in China. There are two competing theories on this subject. Cumulative disadvantage theory contends that health gaps induced by childhood SES tend to widen across the life course as adulthood SES compound or multiply the negative effects of early SES disadvantage. Age-neutral theory draws the opposite inference that the physiological decline due to aging offsets the health gaps at older ages. Based on the data of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) from 2011 to 2018, a two-level mixed-effects model was used to analyze the trajectories of health inequalities induced by childhood SES among Chinese individuals aged 45 and above and further distinguished the age and cohort effects in the overall trajectories. Unlike previous studies that unilaterally supported one of these theories, our findings support both of them. In this study, health gaps induced by childhood SES gradually widened before entering old age, which supports the cumulative disadvantage theory. In contrast, the health gaps in older adults gradually converged with age, thus supporting the age-neutral theory. The age effect shows that in the same birth cohort, health gaps induced by childhood SES first increased and then decreased during the survey time. The cohort effect shows that, at the same age, childhood SES has a greater impact on the health of those with later birth cohorts than on those with earlier birth cohorts. The findings of this study support the importance of policy and practices to reduce health inequalities among adolescents for long-term healthy aging in China.

Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Cardiometabolic Health: A Test of the John Henryism Hypothesis in African American Older Adults.

BACKGROUND: John Henryism (JH) is a form of active high-effort coping. Low-socioeconomic status (SES) African Americans adopting JH to deal with structural racism and other chronic stressors might be more likely to display cardiovascular disease risk factors. Previous tests of this hypothesis have mostly focused on the moderating role of current SES and hypertension as the outcome variable. Furthermore, most of the previous work has been conducted among young and middle-aged adults. This study aimed at extending work on the JH hypothesis by testing the combined effect of JH and childhood SES on metabolic syndrome and systemic inflammation among African American older adults. METHODS: One hundred seventy urban African American older adults (Mage = 67.64 years, 75.9% female) were recruited. Participants completed questionnaires assessing JH, childhood SES, and other variables used as covariates (ie, demographic information, chronic conditions, medication use, and health behaviors). Blood pressure, waist circumference, and blood were also collected. Triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, hemoglobin A1C, and C-reactive protein levels were measured from the blood samples. RESULTS: JH was positively associated with metabolic syndrome symptoms among participants reporting low childhood SES levels, but not among those reporting high childhood SES levels. The same pattern did not emerge when we considered current SES. Similar patterns of results did not emerge as far as systemic inflammation was concerned. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the importance of considering the joint impact of objective conditions early in life and individual psychological proclivities in explaining increased risk for cardiovascular disease risk in this population.

Trans-Ethnic Meta-Analysis of Interactions Between Genetics and Early-Life Socioeconomic Context on Memory Performance and Decline in Older Americans.

BACKGROUND: Later-life cognitive function is influenced by genetics as well as early- and later-life socioeconomic context. However, few studies have examined the interaction between genetics and early childhood factors. METHODS: Using gene-based tests (interaction sequence kernel association test [iSKAT]/iSKAT optimal unified test), we examined whether common and/or rare exonic variants in 39 gene regions previously associated with cognitive performance, dementia, and related traits had an interaction with childhood socioeconomic context (parental education and financial strain) on memory performance or decline in European ancestry (EA, N = 10 468) and African ancestry (AA, N = 2 252) participants from the Health and Retirement Study. RESULTS: Of the 39 genes, 22 in EA and 19 in AA had nominally significant interactions with at least one childhood socioeconomic measure on memory performance and/or decline; however, all but one (father's education by solute carrier family 24 member 4 [SLC24A4] in AA) were not significant after multiple testing correction (false discovery rate [FDR] < .05). In trans-ethnic meta-analysis, 2 genes interacted with childhood socioeconomic context (FDR < .05): mother's education by membrane-spanning 4-domains A4A (MS4A4A) on memory performance, and father's education by SLC24A4 on memory decline. Both interactions remained significant (p < .05) after adjusting for respondent's own educational attainment, apolipoprotein-ε4 allele (APOE ε4) status, lifestyle factors, body mass index, and comorbidities. For both interactions in EA and AA, the genetic effect was stronger in participants with low parental education. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of common and rare variants in genes discovered through genome-wide association studies shows that childhood context may interact with key gene regions to jointly impact later-life memory function and decline. Genetic effects may be more salient for those with lower childhood socioeconomic status.

From childhood financial hardship to late-life depression: socioeconomic pathways.

OBJECTIVE: Childhood financial hardship is associated with depression throughout the life course, including older adulthood. However, it is still unclear the extent to which occupation, education level and household income are mediators of this association. We aimed to examine the association between childhood financial hardship and late-life depression, and potential socioeconomic mediators using community-based data. METHODS: A nationally representative sample of 3623 non-institutionalized older Spanish adults aged 50+ was used. The associations between childhood financial hardship and depression, socioeconomic mediator variables and confounding variables such as chronic physical conditions, number of close people, and loneliness, were assessed through logistic regression models. Mediation analyses of socioeconomic variables were carried out. RESULTS: Older Spanish adults who experienced a poor childhood financial situation were nine times more likely to obtain a lower level of education than those with a good childhood financial situation, and about three times more likely to suffer from depression. Participants' education level mediated about 35-40% of the association between childhood financial hardship and late-life depression whereas we found no significant mediation effect of household income and occupation skill. CONCLUSION: Improving access to the educational system during the life course might result in a reduction in the prevalence of depression in the general population of older adults and particularly among individuals with low socioeconomic status.

Association between childhood socioeconomic status and subjective memory complaints among older adults: results from the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study 2010.

BACKGROUND: Subjective memory complaints (SMC) have been suggested as an early marker of mild cognitive impairment and dementia. However, there is a paucity of evidence on the effects of early life conditions on the development of SMC in old age. This study is aimed at investigating the association between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and SMC in community-dwelling older adults. METHODS: We used the data of the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study, a population-based cohort study of people aged 65 years or older enrolled from 28 municipalities across Japan. Childhood SES and SMC in everyday life were assessed from the self-report questionnaire administered in 2010 (n = 16,184). Poisson regression was performed to determine their association, adjusted for potential confounders and life-course mediators and examined cohort effects. RESULTS: We identified SMC in 47.4% of the participants. After adjusting for sex, age, and number of siblings, low and middle childhood SES were associated with 29% (prevalence ratio [PR]: 1.29, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.22, 1.36) and 10% higher prevalence of SMC (PR: 1.10, 95%CI: 1.04, 1.17), respectively, compared with high childhood SES (p for trend <.001). The interaction terms between childhood SES and age groups were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Childhood SES is significantly associated with SMC among community-dwelling older adults. Efforts to minimize childhood poverty may diminish or delay the onset of SMC and dementia in later life.

Gender differences in the pathways from childhood disadvantage to metabolic syndrome in adulthood: An examination of health lifestyles.

We investigate whether socioeconomic status (SES) in childhood shapes adult health lifestyles in domains of physical activity (leisure, work, chores) and diet (servings of healthy [i.e., nutrient-dense] vs. unhealthy [energy-dense] foods). Physical activity and food choices vary by gender and are key factors in the development of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Thus, we examined gender differences in the intervening role of these behaviors in linking early-life SES and MetS in adulthood. We used survey data (n = 1054) from two waves of the Midlife in the U.S. Study (MIDUS 1 and 2) and biomarker data collected at MIDUS 2. Results show that individuals who were disadvantaged in early life are more likely to participate in physical activity related to work or chores, but less likely to participate in leisure-time physical activity, the domain most consistently linked with health benefits. Women from low SES families were exceedingly less likely to complete recommended amounts of physical activity through leisure. Men from low SES consumed more servings of unhealthy foods and fewer servings of healthy foods. The observed associations between childhood SES and health lifestyles in adulthood persist even after controlling for adult SES. For men, lack of leisure-time physical activity and unhealthy food consumption largely explained the association between early-life disadvantage and MetS. For women, leisure-time physical activity partially accounted for the association, with the direct effect of childhood SES remaining significant. Evidence that material deprivation in early life compromises metabolic health in adulthood calls for policy attention to improve economic conditions for disadvantaged families with young children where behavioral pathways (including gender differences therein) may be shaped. The findings also underscore the need to develop gender-specific interventions in adulthood.

Childhood adversity, social support, and telomere length among perinatal women.

Adverse perinatal health outcomes are heightened among women with psychosocial risk factors, including childhood adversity and a lack of social support. Biological aging could be one pathway by which such outcomes occur. However, data examining links between psychosocial factors and indicators of biological aging among perinatal women are limited. The current study examined the associations of childhood socioeconomic status (SES), childhood trauma, and current social support with telomere length in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in a sample of 81 women assessed in early, mid, and late pregnancy as well as 7-11 weeks postpartum. Childhood SES was defined as perceived childhood social class and parental educational attainment. Measures included the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and average telomere length in PBMCs. Per a linear mixed model, telomere length did not change across pregnancy and postpartum visits; thus, subsequent analyses defined telomere length as the average across all available timepoints. ANCOVAs showed group differences by perceived childhood social class, maternal and paternal educational attainment, and current family social support, with lower values corresponding with shorter telomeres, after adjustment for possible confounds. No effects of childhood trauma or social support from significant others or friends on telomere length were observed. Findings demonstrate that while current SES was not related to telomeres, low childhood SES, independent of current SES, and low family social support were distinct risk factors for cellular aging in women. These data have relevance for understanding potential mechanisms by which early life deprivation of socioeconomic and relationship resources affect maternal health. In turn, this has potential significance for intergenerational transmission of telomere length. The predictive value of markers of biological versus chronological age on birth outcomes warrants investigation.

Socioeconomic Status Across the Life Course and Cognitive Function Among Older Adults: An Examination of the Latency, Pathways, and Accumulation Hypotheses.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the relationship between life course socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive function among older adults in the United States over a 12-year observation period. The mediation of adult SES on the association between childhood SES and cognition was examined, along with the relationship between cumulative SES and cognition. METHOD: Using a nationally representative sample from the Health and Retirement Study, cognitive status and change in cognition from 1998 to 2010 were examined using growth curve models. RESULTS: The results showed that cognitive function varied within-persons and between-persons. SES disadvantage in childhood was associated with lower cognitive function at baseline. Adult SES mediated the relationship between childhood SES and cognitive function. Persons with higher cumulative SES demonstrated an advantage in cognitive function. DISCUSSION: Childhood SES and adult SES both had relationships with cognitive status and, to a lesser degree, change in cognition in later life.

Bias Correction Methods for Misclassified Covariates in the Cox Model: comparison offive correction methods by simulation and data analysis.

Measurement error/misclassification is commonplace in research when variable(s) can notbe measured accurately. A number of statistical methods have been developed to tackle this problemin a variety of settings and contexts. However, relatively few methods are available to handlemisclassified categorical exposure variable(s) in the Cox proportional hazards regression model. Inthis paper, we aim to review and compare different methods to handle this problem - naïvemethods, regression calibration, pooled estimation, multiple imputation, corrected score estimation,and MC-SIMEX - by simulation. These methods are also applied to a life course study with recalleddata and historical records. In practice, the issue of measurement error/misclassification should beaccounted for in design and analysis, whenever possible. Also, in the analysis, it could be moreideal to implement more than one correction method for estimation and inference, with properunderstanding of underlying assumptions.

Family socioeconomic status modulates the coping-related neural response of offspring.

Substantial research links economic adversity to poor coping in stressful or threatening environments. Neuroimaging studies suggest that activation of the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC) plays a key role in self-control, and it seems that individual differences in neurocognitive systems underlying self-control are determined in part by subjective childhood socioeconomic status (SES). The present study used near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to investigate whether subjective childhood SES moderates rVLPFC activity during one form of threatening environment: social exclusion. Twenty-five undergraduates participated in a NIRS session in which they were socially included and then excluded during an online ball-tossing game. Lower subjective childhood SES was associated with higher levels of social distress and lower levels of rVLPFC activity during social exclusion. The present findings suggest that early family environments are reliably associated with deficits in offspring coping resources and processes, as well as with difficulties in regulating interpersonal circumstances.

The Influence of Early-Life Events on Human Capital, Health Status, and Labor Market Outcomes Over the Life Course().

Using national data from the U.S., we find that poor health at birth and limited parental resources (including low income, lack of health insurance, and unwanted pregnancy) interfere with cognitive development and health capital in childhood, reduce educational attainment, and lead to worse labor market and health outcomes in adulthood. These effects are substantial and robust to the inclusion of sibling fixed effects and an extensive set of controls. The results reveal that low birth weight ages people in their 30s and 40s by 12 years, increases the probability of dropping out of high school by one-third, lowers labor force participation by 5 percentage points, and reduces labor market earnings by roughly 15 percent. While poor birth outcomes reduce human capital accumulation, they explain only 10 percent of the total effect of low birth weight on labor market earnings. Taken together, the evidence is consistent with a negative reinforcing intergenerational transmission of disadvantage within the family; parental economic status influences birth outcomes, birth outcomes have long reaching effects on health and economic status in adulthood, which in turn leads to poor birth outcomes for one's own children.