Technological quality improvement of gluten-free dough and chapatti-making by incorporation of modified oat 1,4-ß-D-glucan.

The present study aimed to explore the contribution of untreated (UtßG) and modified oat 1,4-ß-D-glucan (OzßG) to the quality of gluten-free chapattis at varying concentrations (0, 1.5, 3, and 4.5 % labelled as M0, M1, M2 and M3 for maize chapattis and F0, F1, F2 and F3 for finger millet chapattis, respectively). The functionality of flours was significantly enhanced by the addition of UtßG and OzßG. However, OzßG incorporated flour exhibited a more pronounced influence on both functional and farinographic parameters when compared to flours with UtßG. Further, the hardness of the chapattis decreased with incorporation of OzßG and it was lowest for M2 and F2 i.e. 6.38 N and 5.27 N, respectively due to the formation of more carboxyl and hydroxyl groups, which had more affinity towards water molecules. The sensory analysis indicated that OzßG incorporated M2 and F2chapattis exhibited the highest overall acceptability. Hence, this study provides valuable insights into the utilization of UtßG and OzßG for the formulation of gluten-free chapattis with better dough characteristics and chapatti-making properties.

Genome-wide identification of nuclear factor -Y (NF-Y) transcription factor family in finger millet reveals structural and functional diversity.

The Nuclear Factor Y (NF-Y) is one of the widely explored transcription factors (TFs) family for its potential role in regulating molecular mechanisms related to stress response and developmental processes. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn) is a hardy and stress-tolerant crop where partial efforts have been made to characterize a few transcription factors. However, the NF-Y TF is still poorly explored and not well documented. The present study aims to identify and characterize NF-Y genes of finger millet using a bioinformatics approach. Genome mining revealed 57 EcNF-Y (Eleusine coracana Nuclear Factor-Y) genes in finger millet, comprising 18 NF-YA, 23 NF-YB, and 16 NF-YC genes. The gene organization, conserved motif, cis-regulatory elements, miRNA target sites, and three-dimensional structures of these NF-Ys were analyzed. The nucleotide substitution rate and gene duplication analysis showed the presence of 7 EcNF-YA, 10 EcNF-YB, and 8 EcNF-YC paralogous genes and revealed the possibilities of synonymous substitution and stabilizing selection during evolution. The role of NF-Ys of finger millet in abiotic stress tolerance was evident by the presence of relevant cis-elements such as ABRE (abscisic acid-responsive elements), DRE (dehydration-responsive element), MYB (myeloblastosis) or MYC (myelocytomatosis). Twenty-three isoforms of miR169, mainly targeting a single NF-Y gene, i.e., the EcNF-YA13 gene, were observed. This interaction could be targeted for finger millet improvement against Magnaporthe oryzae (blast fungus). Therefore, by this study, the putative functions related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance for many of the EcNF-Y genes could be explored in finger millet.

Biotechnological studies towards improvement of finger millet using multi-omics approaches.

A plethora of studies have uncovered numerous important genes with agricultural significance in staple crops. However, when it comes to orphan crops like minor millet, genomic research lags significantly behind that of major crops. This situation has promoted a focus on exploring research opportunities in minor millets, particularly in finger millet, using cutting-edge methods. Finger millet, a coarse cereal known for its exceptional nutritional content and ability to withstand environmental stresses represents a promising climate-smart and nutritional crop in the battle against escalating environmental challenges. The existing traditional improvement programs for finger millet are insufficient to address global hunger effectively. The lack of utilization of high-throughput platforms, genome editing, haplotype breeding, and advanced breeding approaches hinders the systematic multi-omics studies on finger millet, which are essential for pinpointing crucial genes related to agronomically important and various stress responses. The growing environmental uncertainties have widened the gap between the anticipated and real progress in crop improvement. To overcome these challenges a combination of cutting-edge multi-omics techniques such as high-throughput sequencing, speed breeding, mutational breeding, haplotype-based breeding, genomic selection, high-throughput phenotyping, pangenomics, genome editing, and more along with integration of deep learning and artificial intelligence technologies are essential to accelerate research efforts in finger millet. The scarcity of multi-omics approaches in finger millet leaves breeders with limited modern tools for crop enhancement. Therefore, leveraging datasets from previous studies could prove effective in implementing the necessary multi-omics interventions to enrich the genetic resource in finger millet.

Optimization of spray-drying process for the microencapsulation of L. Plantarum (MCC 2974) in ultrasound hydrated finger millet milk.

Spray drying process was optimized for the development of probiotic finger millet milk powder. The independent parameters considered were inlet air temperature, maltodextrin content, and feed rate depending upon the preliminary trials. The major dependent quality parameters considered in the current work were moisture content, water activity, powder yield, encapsulation efficiency, and viability reduction. The desirability function was considered as a basis for the optimization of spray drying process. At the optimum process conditions of 151.68 °C of inlet air temperature, 100 mL/h of feed rate, and 29.32% of maltodextrin content, probiotic finger millet milk powder with 43.81% of powder yield and 84.97% of higher encapsulation efficiency could be achieved. The SEM analysis of the spray-dried powder confirmed the proper encapsulation of viable cells in the powder matrix. XRD analysis showed the amorphous powder structure suitable for other food applications. The promising results could be further utilized to produce non-dairy probiotic finger millet milk powder.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.): from staple to superfood-a comprehensive review on nutritional, bioactive, industrial, and climate resilience potential.

MAIN CONCLUSION: This review discusses the Finger millet's rich nutritional profile, bioactive potential, and industrial applications, combined with its climate resilience, which make it a promising crop for enhancing food security and promoting sustainable agriculture. This review also highlights its significant potential to address malnutrition and mitigate climate change impacts. The emergence of Finger millet from "poor man's staple food" to "a nutrient rich cereal" has encouraged the need to explore this crop at a wider scale. It is a highly significant crop due to its rich nutritional and bioactive profile, diverse biological activities, and promising industrial applications, along with the high climate resilience. This comprehensive review evaluates its nutritional composition by comparing favorably with other cereals and millets and emphasizing its potential to address malnutrition and enhance food security. Furthermore, it explores the phytochemical/bioactive potential and strategies to enhance their bioavailability followed biological activities of Finger millet by highlighting its various health-promoting properties. The review also discusses industrial potential of finger millet including its role in nutraceutical and functional food production, as well as bioenergy generation. In addition, role of Finger millet as a climate-resilient crop; specifically, the available genetic resources and identification of genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with major stress tolerance traits have also been discussed. By providing a comprehensive synthesis of existing knowledge, this study offers valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders engaged in efforts to promote sustainable agriculture, enhance food and nutrition security, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Optimization and quality evaluation of functional pasta made from germinated finger millet, buckwheat, and black gram.

The investigation was conducted to optimize process variables to manufacture functional pasta from composite flour. The selected grains were steeped, germinated, dried, and milled to produce flour. The flours were mixed at optimized proportions (57.31% buckwheat flour, 12.68% finger millet flour, and 30% paheli dal flour) to produce composite flour. The full factorial experimental design opted for optimization of process variables namely, moisture content (mc) (28, 30, 32, and 34%) and mixing speed (60, 80, 100, and 120 rpm). The optimized multi-grain pasta showed shorter processing time, in-range cooking loss, and higher cooking weight and water absorption capacity (WAC). The highest overall acceptability was recorded for multi-grain pasta processed at 60 rpm with an initial mc of 32%. Proximate analysis of optimized multi-grain pasta showed that pasta contained protein (13.95%), crude fiber (5.05%), ash (2.05%), a lower amount of fat (0.74%), and carbohydrates (71.71%).

Can site-specific nutrient management improve the productivity and resource use efficiency of climate-resilient finger millet in calcareous soils in India?

Finger millet, an important 'Nutri-Cereal' and climate-resilient crop, is cultivated as a marginal crop in calcareous soils. Calcareous soils have low organic carbon content, high pH levels, and poor structure. Such a situation leads to poor productivity of the crop. Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), which focuses on supplying optimum nutrients when a crop is needed, can ensure optimum production and improve the nutrient and energy use efficiency of crops. Moreover, developing an appropriate SSNM technique for this crop could offer new insights into nutrient management practices, particularly for calcareous soils. A field experiment was conducted during the rainy seasons of 2020 and 2021 in calcareous soil at Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, India. The experiment consisted of 8 treatments, viz. control, nitrogen (N)/phosphorus (P)/potassium (K)-omission, 75 %, 100 %, and 125 % recommended fertilizer dose (RFD), and 100 % recommended P and K + 30 kg ha-1 N as basal + rest N as per GreenSeeker readings. From this study, it was observed that the GreenSeeker-based SSNM resulted in the maximum grain yield (2873 kg ha-1), net output energy (96.3 GJ ha-1), and agronomic efficiency of N (30.6 kg kg-1), P (68.9 kg kg-1), and K (68.9 kg kg-1). The application of 125 % RFD resulted in ∼7 % lower yield than that under GreenSeeker-based nutrient management. Approximately 12 % greater energy use efficiency and 21-36 % greater nutrient use efficiency were recorded under GreenSeeker-based nutrient management than under 125 % RDF. The indigenous supplies of N, P, and K were found to be 14.31, 3.00, and 18.51 kg ha-1, respectively. Thus, 100 % of the recommended P and K + 30 kg ha-1 N as basal + rest N according to GreenSeeker readings can improve the yield, nutrient use efficiency, and energy balance of finger millet in calcareous soils.

Optimisation ofLevilactobacillus brevis-fermented finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and evaluation of its effects on cancer cells (HCT116 and MDA-MB-231).

The objective of this study was to optimise the millet formulation using Levilactobacillus brevis and to evaluate its anticarcinogenic potential in vitro. The formula was developed in the course of the fermentation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) using L. brevis MTTC 4460 and optimised by response surface methodology and validation by artificial neural networking (ANN). The optimised millet formulation could be obtained using 2 % of bacterial inoculum, 2 % of glucose, and a fermentation duration of 3.3 days with a yield of 5.98 mg/mL lactic acid and 3.38 log10 (CFU/mL) viable L. brevis with overall desirability value of 1. The fermented millet formulation exhibited antiproliferative and antimigratory effects on MDA-MB-231 and HCT116 cancer cell lines. In addition, the outcomes observed in western blot analysis revealed that the formulation elicited apoptotic responses mediated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins in MDA-MB-231 and HCT116 cell lines while demonstrating no discernible impact on HEK293 normal cells.

Effect of fermentation on nutrient composition, antinutrients, and mineral bioaccessibility of finger millet based Injera: A traditional Ethiopian food.

Finger millet, like other cereals, contains high amounts of antinutrients that bind minerals, making them unavailable for absorption. This study explores the effect of traditional fermentation on nutritional, antinutritional, and subsequent mineral bioaccessibility (specifically iron, zinc, and calcium) of finger millet based Injera. Samples of fermented dough and Injera prepared from light brown and white finger millet varieties were analyzed for nutritional composition, antinutritional content, and mineral bioaccessibility following standard procedures. With some exceptions, the proximate composition of fermented dough was significantly affected by fermentation time. Compared to unfermented flour, the phytate and condensed tannin content significantly (p < 0.05) decreased for fermented dough and Injera samples. A strong decline in phytate and condensed tannin content was observed in white finger millet Injera as fermentation time increased, compared to light brown finger millet based Injera. The mineral bioaccessibility of Injera prepared from finger millet and maize composite flour increased with fermentation time, leading to a significant increase in bioaccessible iron, zinc, and calcium, ranging from 15.4-40.0 %, 26.8-50.8 %, and 60.9-88.5 %, respectively. The results suggest that traditional fermentation can be an effective method to reduce phytate and condensed tannin content, simultaneously increasing the bioaccessibility of minerals in the preparation of finger millet based Injera.

Development and Evaluation of Calcium-Fortified Multi-Millet Biscuits: A Nutritious Alternative to Refined Wheat Flour.

Millet products have garnered global recognition for their exceptional nutritional profile, appealing to various age demographics, and, therefore, fortifying such products with minerals can ensure nutritional security. This research explores the feasibility of utilizing millet as a substitute for refined wheat flour in biscuit production. Three distinct millet varieties were investigated: finger, pearl, and buckwheat. Employing response surface methodology (RSM), the optimal ratio of these flours was determined, resulting in a blend of 1.5:1:1, respectively. The optimized multi-millet biscuits were further enhanced with calcium fortification and subjected to comprehensive physico-chemical analysis. Proximate composition analysis revealed favorable levels of protein (5.472 ± 0.31%), ash (2.80 ± 0.57 g/100 g), and energy density (5.8015 ± 0.004 kcal/g), indicating a significantly higher protein content, enriched mineral profile, and high energy density as compared to refined wheat flour products. Sensory evaluation encompassing attributes such as color and texture and organoleptic assessment using a nine-point hedonic scale demonstrated favorable acceptance. Additionally, the overall acceptability of the biscuits remained consistently high throughout storage, ranging from 8.263 ± 0.65 (day 0) to 8.053 ± 0.85 (day 14). This study underscores the potential of multi-millet biscuits as a nutritious and palatable alternative to traditional wheat-based snacks, offering an avenue for diversifying dietary options and promoting healthier food choices.

Ectopic overexpression of Eleusine coracana CAX3 confers tolerance to metal and ion stress in yeast and Arabidopsis.

Ionic and metal toxicity in plants is still a global problem for the environment, agricultural productivity and ultimately poses human health threats when these metal ions accumulate in edible organs of plants. Metal and ion transport from cytosol to the vacuole is considered an important component of metal and ion tolerance and a plant's potential utility in phytoremediation. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is an orphan crop but has prominent nutritional value in comparison to other cereals. Previous transcriptomic studies suggested that one of the calcium/proton exchanger (EcCAX3) is strongly upregulated during different developmental stages of spikes development in plant. This finding led us to speculate that high calcium accumulation in the grain might be because of CAX3 function. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis shows that EcCAX3 is more closely related to foxtail millet, sorghum and rice CAX3 protein. To decipher the functional role of EcCAX3, we have adopted complementation of yeast triple mutant K677 (Δpmc1Δvcx1Δcnb1), which has defective calcium transport machinery. Furthermore, metal tolerance assay shows that EcCAX3 expression conferred tolerance to different metal stresses in yeast. The gain-of-function study suggests that EcCAX3 overexpressing Arabidopsis plants shows better tolerance to higher concentration of different metal ions as compared to wild type Col-0 plants. EcCAX3-overexpression transgenic lines exhibits abundance of metal transporters and cation exchanger transporter transcripts under metal stress conditions. Furthermore, EcCAX3-overexpression lines have higher accumulation of macro- and micro-elements under different metal stress. Overall, this finding highlights the functional role of EcCAX3 in the regulation of metal and ion homeostasis and this could be potentially utilized to engineer metal fortification and generation of stress tolerant crops in near future.

Identification and Molecular Docking Analysis of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors from Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana).

Hypertension remains a significant global health concern, contributing significantly to cardiovascular diseases and mortality rates. The inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) plays a crucial role in alleviating high blood pressure. We investigated the potential of finger millets (Eleusine coracana) as a natural remedy for hypertension by isolating and characterizing its ACE-inhibitory compound. First, we evaluated the ACE-inhibitory activity of the finger millet ethanol extract and subsequently proceeded with solvent fractionation. Among the solvent fractions, the ethyl acetate fraction exhibited the highest ACE inhibitory activity and was further fractionated. Using preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, the ethyl acetate fraction was separated into four subfractions, with fraction 2 (F2) exhibiting the highest ACE inhibitory activity. Subsequent 1 H-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and 13 C-NMR analyses confirmed that the isolated compound from F2 was catechin. Furthermore, molecular docking studies indicated that catechin has the potential to act as an ACE inhibitor. These findings suggest that finger millets, particularly as a source of catechin, have the potential to be used as a natural antihypertensive.

Rheological and gelling properties of atmospheric pressure cold plasma treated finger millet (Eleusine coracana) starch.

Interest in exploring alternative starch sources like finger millet is rising due to wide starch applications. However, native starch often lacks desired qualities, including rheological properties. Modification is thus necessary for specific end uses. Plasma treatment as a greener and sustainable method for starch modification was therefore, studied for its ability to impact rheological properties of finger millet starch (FMS). Considerable changes in the rheological properties on FMS was noted, a significant decrease and increase (p < 0.05) in the peak viscosity (from 3.35 to 0.553 Pa.s) and paste clarity respectively was observed, indicating occurrence of depolymerization. However, intermediate plasma-treated samples (200 V) observed a decrease in paste clarity attributed to aggregate formation and cross-linking. Cross-linking was also confirmed by findings of frequency sweep where a continuous decrease in G' values of plasma treated FMS gel was interrupted by sudden increase. Despite depolymerization causing alteration of rheological behaviour such as decrease in shear thinning properties, gel strength observed a contradictory increase. This was attributed to incorporation of functional group and absence of shear responsible for network formation giving higher gel strength to FMS gels. This is elaborated in detail in the study. The study thus concluded that cold plasma significantly impacted all the rheological properties of the FMS and hence can prove to be beneficial for modification of starch rheological parameters.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) enhancement through genomic resources and breeding methods: current implications and potential future interventions.

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is an essential staple crop in many regions of Africa and Asia, valued for its nutritional content and resilience in challenging agro-ecological conditions. The enhancement of finger millet through genomic resources and breeding methods represents a promising avenue for addressing food and nutritional security. Current efforts in this field have harnessed genomic technologies to decipher the crop's genetic diversity and identify key traits related to yield, disease resistance, and nutritional content. These insights have facilitated the development of improved varieties through selective breeding, accelerating the crop's adaptation to changing environmental conditions. In the future, continued advancements in genomics and breeding methodologies hold the potential to further enhance finger millet's resilience, nutritional value, and productivity, ultimately benefiting both farmers and consumers. This review article synthesizes the current state of research and development in finger millet enhancement through the integration of genomic resources and innovative breeding methods. The utilization of these insights in selective breeding has already yielded promising results in developing improved finger millet varieties that meet the evolving needs of farmers and consumers. Moreover, this article discusses potential future interventions, including the continued advancement of genomics, precision breeding, and sustainable agricultural practices. These interventions hold the promise of further enhancing finger millet's adaptability to changing climates, its nutritional quality, and its overall productivity, thereby contributing to food security and improved livelihoods in finger millet-dependent regions.

Expression profiling of Nuclear Factor-Y (NF-Y) transcription factors during dehydration and salt stress in finger millet reveals potential candidate genes for multiple stress tolerance.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Expression profiling of NF-Y transcription factors during dehydration and salt stress in finger millet genotypes contrastingly differing in tolerance levels identifies candidate genes for further characterization and functional studies. The Nuclear Factor-Y (NF-Y) transcription factors are known for imparting abiotic stress tolerance in different plant species. However, there is no information on the role of this transcription factor family in naturally drought-tolerant crop finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.). Therefore, interpretation of expression profiles against drought and salinity stress may provide valuable insights into specific and/or overlapping expression patterns of Eleusine coracana Nuclear Factor-Y (EcNF-Y) genes. Given this, we identified 59 NF-Y (18 NF-YA, 23 NF-YB, and 18 NF-YC) encoding genes and designated them EcNF-Y genes. Expression profiling of these genes was performed in two finger millet genotypes, PES400 (dehydration and salt stress tolerant) and VR708 (dehydration and salt stress sensitive), subjected to PEG-induced dehydration and salt (NaCl) stresses at different time intervals (0, 6, and 12 h). The qRT-PCR expression analysis reveals that the six EcNF-Y genes namely EcNF-YA1, EcNF-YA5, EcNF-YA16, EcNF-YB6, EcNF-YB10, and EcNF-YC2 might be associated with tolerance to both dehydration and salinity stress in early stress condition (6 h), suggesting the involvement of these genes in multiple stress responses in tolerant genotype. In contrast, the transcript abundance of finger millet EcNF-YA5 genes was also observed in the sensitive genotype VR708 under late stress conditions (12 h) of both dehydration and salinity stress. Therefore, the EcNF-YA5 gene might be important for adaptation to salinity and dehydration stress in sensitive finger millet genotypes. Therefore, this gene could be considered as a susceptibility determinant, which can be edited to impart tolerance. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that finger millet NF-Y genes share strong evolutionary and functional relationship to NF-Ys governing response to abiotic stresses in rice, sorghum, maize, and wheat. This is the first report of expression profiling of EcNF-Ys genes identified from the finger millet genome and reveals potential candidate for enhancing dehydration and salt tolerance.

Understanding the atmospheric cold plasma-induced modification of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) starch and its related mechanisms.

This research was conducted to evaluate the effects of cold plasma (CP) on finger millet starch (FMS). FMS was exposed to partially ionized gas at varying voltages (170, 200, and 230 Volt) for varied time (10, 20, and 30 mins). The impact of treatment was studied using physico-chemical, and functional properties, and the mechanisms of starch modification occurring were stated. A significant reduction in the degree of polymerization was noticed based on parameters like reducing sugar, amylose content, solubility, and molecular weight. However, in certain voltage and time combinations, crosslinking was also confirmed by analysis such as XRD, FTIR, DSC, etc. The properties of starch were altered such as remarkable increase in water solubility by 6.7 times for highest voltage and longest time (230 V/30 min) was registered. NMR data suggested valuable findings- oxidation of OH group at C6 position of starch led to formation of carbonyl group followed by carboxyl group. NMR also showed a decrease in OH protons confirming crosslinking and hence all these analyses helped to conclude findings about the quality changes using CP. It was observed that the highest voltage and considerably longer exposure time of 20 and 30 min induced significant changes in the FMS.

Development and characterization of physical stability, glycemic index, flow behaviors, and antioxidant activity of finger millet-based beverage.

Millets are gaining attention as a superfood due to their higher nutritional value and cost-effectiveness. In this regard, extraction condition for the development of finger millet-based beverage was optimized using a central composite design. Soaking time (X1) and temperature (X2) in the range of 5-10 h and 40-60°C, respectively, were the independent variables taken for three responses, namely, yield, total solids, and sedimentation index. The optimized conditions are best fitted in quadratic model (R2 0.91) for all the dependent variables. Accordingly, the optimized levels selected for soaking time and temperature were 10 h and 60°C respectively, resulting in the yield (Y1) of 91.86% ± 0.94%, total solids (Y2) of 17.72% ± 0.56%, and sedimentation index (Y3) of 12.18% ± 0.06%. Further, xanthan gum (0.5%) and jaggery powder (5%) were added in the optimized beverage to improve its physicochemical and functional properties. Xanthan gum improved the physical stability and rheological properties of the beverage, whereas jaggery improved the flavor and phenolic content of the same. The optimized beverage had a good amount of phenolic content (53.70 µg GAE/mL), antioxidant activity (DPPH 13.76 µmol/mL), zeta potential (-19.8 mV), and glycemic index (57). The flow curve of beverages was obtained using power law model, and result indicated good consistency index (k = 0.7716 Pa s) with flow behavior (n = 0.3411) depicted its pseudoplastic nature. The optimized extraction condition significantly reduced the antinutrients, tannin, and phytic content by 47% and 14%, respectively, in optimized beverage than control.

Uncovering the genomic regions underlying grain iron and zinc content using genome-wide association mapping in finger millet.

Finger millet, being rich source of essential minerals like iron and zinc, is an ideal model to identify candidate genes contributing to high grain iron content (GIC) and zinc content (GZC) in plants. Hence, finger millet diversity panel comprised of 202 genotypes was evaluated in two geographical locations and found to have a wide variation for GIC and GZC. A genome-wide association study using 2977 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers identified reliable marker-trait associations (MTAs). The use of general linear model (GLM) and mixed linear model (MLM) approaches revealed 5 and 8 common MTAs linked to GIC and GZC, respectively, for both Almora and Pantnagar locations, with a high level of significance (P < 0.01). However, 12 significant MTAs were found to be linked with GIC for Pantnagar location alone. The MTAs were associated with specific genes that produce ferritin (Fer1), iron-regulated transporter-like protein (IRT2), and yellow stripe-like 2 proteins (YSL2). These genes are likely linked to GIC variation in finger millet. Additionally, the variation in GZC in finger millet was connected to genes that encode zinc transporters, namely ZIP1 protein (ZIP1) and ZTP29-like protein (ZTP29). Compared to low GIC and GZC genotypes, high GIC and GZC genotypes exhibited greater relative expression of these genes. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03889-1.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of NBLRR genes in finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) and their expression in response to Magnaporthe grisea infection.

BACKGROUND: The nucleotide binding site leucine rich repeat (NBLRR) genes significantly regulate defences against phytopathogens in plants. The genome-wide identification and analysis of NBLRR genes have been performed in several species. However, the detailed evolution, structure, expression of NBLRRs and functional response to Magnaporthe grisea are unknown in finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.). RESULTS: The genome-wide scanning of the finger millet genome resulted in 116 NBLRR (EcNBLRRs1-116) encompassing 64 CC-NB-LRR, 47 NB-LRR and 5 CCR-NB-LRR types. The evolutionary studies among the NBLRRs of five Gramineae species, viz., purple false brome (Brachypodium distachyon (L.) P.Beauv.), finger millet (E. coracana), rice (Oryza sativa L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. (Moench)) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.) showed the evolution of NBLRRs in the ancestral lineage of the target species and subsequent divergence through gene-loss events. The purifying selection (Ka/Ks < 1) shaped the expansions of NBLRRs paralogs in finger millet and orthologs among the target Gramineae species. The promoter sequence analysis showed various stress- and phytohormone-responsive cis-acting elements besides growth and development, indicating their potential role in disease defence and regulatory mechanisms. The expression analysis of 22 EcNBLRRs in the genotypes showing contrasting responses to Magnaporthe grisea infection revealed four and five EcNBLRRs in early and late infection stages, respectively. The six of these nine candidate EcNBLRRs proteins, viz., EcNBLRR21, EcNBLRR26, EcNBLRR30, EcNBLRR45, EcNBLRR55 and EcNBLRR76 showed CC, NB and LRR domains, whereas the EcNBLRR23, EcNBLRR32 and EcNBLRR83 showed NB and LRR somains. CONCLUSION: The identification and expression analysis of EcNBLRRs showed the role of EcNBLRR genes in assigning blast resistance in finger millet. These results pave the foundation for in-depth and targeted functional analysis of EcNBLRRs through genome editing and transgenic approaches.

Investigating the effect of natural fermentation in modifying the physico-functional, structural and thermal characteristics of pearl and finger millet starch.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, millets are often considered an emerging crop for sustainable agriculture. Therefore, millets can be exploited as an alternative source of starch which has many applications ranging from food, packaging, bioplastics, and others. However, starch is seldom used in its native form and is more often modified to enhance its functional properties. In literature, many traditional millet-based food recipes often incorporate a fermentation step before cooking. Therefore, using this traditional knowledge fermentation has been explored as a potential method for modifying millet starch. RESULTS: Pearl millet (PM) and finger millet (FM) flour were allowed to naturally ferment for 24 h followed by starch extraction. Compared to native (N) starch, water/oil holding capacity and least gelation concentration of fermented (F) starch decreased with no significant change in swelling power. The solubility, paste clarity and in vitro digestibility of starch were significantly affected by fermentation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data indicates that after fermentation, crystallinity increased while the A-type crystalline structure remained intact. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra showed no deletion or addition of any new functional groups. Thermal characterization by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that the enthalpy of gelatinization of PM starch decreased while that of FM starch increased after fermentation. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that 24 h natural fermentation had a significant impact on functional properties of starch without altering the structural architecture of starch granules. Therefore, fermentation can be further explored as a low-cost alternative for starch modification. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.