Chirality Probe of Twisted Bilayer Graphene in the Linear Transport Regime.

We propose minimal transport experiments in the coherent regime that can probe the chirality of twisted moiré structures. We show that only with a third contact and in the presence of an in-plane magnetic field (or another time-reversal symmetry breaking effect) a chiral system may display nonreciprocal transport in the linear regime. We then propose to use the third lead as a voltage probe and show that opposite enantiomers give rise to different voltage drops on the third lead. Additionally, in the scenario of layer-discriminating contacts, the third lead can serve as a current probe capable of detecting different handedness even in the absence of a magnetic field. In a complementary configuration, applying opposite voltages on the two layers of the third lead gives rise to a chiral (super)current in the absence of a source-drain voltage whose direction is determined by its chirality.

Reciprocity heightens academic performance in elementary school students.

Social relationships are pivotal for human beings. Yet, we still lack a complete understanding of the types and conditions of social relationships that facilitate learning among children. Here, we present the results of a study involving 855 elementary school children from 14 different public schools in Chile designed to understand their social learning strategies in classrooms. We mapped students' social relationships using a behavioral experiment-a non-anonymous social dilemma-that allows us to measure cooperation and infer reciprocal and asymmetrical relationships between peers. We implemented the experiment synchronously in each classroom using networked tablets and a friendly user interface to mitigate cognitive barriers and boost students' engagement. Using regression models, we found a positive and significant association between reciprocity and academic performance. This result holds after controlling for class attendance, sex, parents' education, social status, individual cooperative dispositions, and fixed effects per class group. Finally, using a difference-in-difference framework, we found robust evidence that reciprocity heightens academic performance by comparing two consecutive academic semesters. This effect is heterogeneous and is considerably more prominent for the top 20% students experiencing higher levels of reciprocity in their social relationships. We expect these results to inform cooperative learning interventions in elementary education.

Intercambios entre la educación y la teoría de las representaciones sociales en Brasil / Intercâmbios entre Educação e Teoria das Representações Sociais no Brasil / Exchanges between Education and the Thor of Social Representations in Brazil

En este artículo nos proponemos ofrecer una perspectiva alternativa a las que orientan los análisis acerca de las relaciones entre la Educación y la Teoría de las Representaciones Sociales. En oposición a la tradición que considera la Educación como un campo de aplicación de la psicología, defendemos que entre ambas esferas del conocimiento hay contribuciones mutuas. A mutualidad se entiende al proceso de interacción recíproco, a la interdependencía y a la cooperación, a la solidaridad y ayuda mutua. La mutualidad de la Educación y la Teoría de las Representaciones Sociales consiste en el movimiento que estimula estudios en el contexto brasileño, sobre todo los que se han desarrollado en el Centro Internacional de Estudos em Representações Sociais e Subjetividade ­ Educação (CIERS-ed). Los análisis realizados acerca de las contribuciones de la Teoría de las Representaciones Sociales a la Educación ponen de manifiesto el incremento de investigaciones que consideran la producción de saberes basados en realidades sociales contextualizadas, así como la importancia que tiene la subjetividad de educadores y educandos. A su vez, la Educación viene ofreciendo a las investigaciones en representaciones sociales un avance que va desde el diagnóstico hasta la praxis, pautado sobre todo por abordajes críticos y políticos del pensamiento educacional. (AU)

Neste artigo propomos oferecer uma perspectiva alternativa àquelas que orientam a análise da relação entre a Educação e a Teoria das Representações Sociais. Em oposição à tradição que considera a Educação como um campo de aplicação da psicologia, argumentamos que existem contribuições mútuas entre as duas esferas do conhecimento. A reciprocidade é entendida como o processo de interação recíproca, interdependência e cooperação, solidariedade e ajuda mútua. A mutualidade entre a Educação e a Teoria das Representações Sociais consiste no movimento que estimula os estudos no contexto brasileiro, especialmente os que foram desenvolvidos no Centro Internacional de Estudos em Representações Sociais e Subjetividade - Educação (CIERS-ed). As análises realizadas sobre as contribuições da Teoria das Representações Sociais à Educação destacam o aumento das pesquisas que consideram a produção de conhecimento a partir de realidades sociais contextualizadas, bem como a importância da subjetividade dos educadores e aprendizes. Ao mesmo tempo, a Educação vem oferecendo às pesquisas sobre representações sociais um progresso que vai do diagnóstico à práxis, guiado principalmente por abordagens críticas e políticas do pensamento educacional. (AU)

In this paper, we propose to offer an alternative perspective to those that guide the analysis of the relationship between Education and the Theory of Social Representations. In opposition to the tradition that considers Education as a field of application of psychology, we argue that there are mutual contributions between both spheres of knowledge. Mutuality is understood as the process of reciprocal interaction, interdependence and cooperation, solidarity, and mutual help. The mutuality of Education and the Theory of Social Representations consists in the movement that stimulates studies in the Brazilian context, especially those that have been developed at the Centro Internacional de Estudos em Representações Sociais e Subjetividade - Educação (CIERS-ed). The analyses carried out on the contributions of the Theory of Social Representations to Education highlight the increase in research that considers the production of knowledge based on contextualized social realities, as well as the importance of the subjectivity of educators and learners. At the same time, Education has been offering research on social representations progress that goes from diagnosis to praxis, mainly guided by critical and political approaches to educational thought. (AU)

Women as users and dealers of inhalants in the streets of Mexico city: A study on empowerment, cooperation, and trust at the margins.

INTRODUCTION: People who live on the streets in Mexico commonly use inhalants to induce psychoactive effects. Research on the distribution, sale, and consumption of these substances is scarce and mostly focuses on men, which limits the understanding of their use and possible public policies. Our ethnographic research concentrates on women who live and work on the street under marginalized conditions in Mexico City. METHODS: A Grounded Theory approach was used to frame the two-year-long field work. A field diary was kept for the multi-sited ethnography and participant observations in street-based settings, as well as five in-depth interviews with female distributors, sellers, and/or users of inhalants. Data was analyzed based on four dimensions: biography, representation as a dealer or user, social dynamics, and geographical distribution of networks to distribute, sell, and use inhalants. RESULTS: Women involved in the distribution, sale and use of inhalants are motivated by gender violence and socioeconomic vulnerability. They shape reciprocity networks to purchase inhalants in dangerous urban areas and avoid being mugged and physically or sexually assaulted. Although men are the ones who offer protection, women employ women to sell the inhalants and strengthen trust in the community. Distribution begins in clandestine places where combinations of unknown solvents are prepared in 20-L containers. Each liter is supplied for 1.92 USD to be retailed in 9.58 USD per liter in the streets. Particular language and cultural street-codes are necessary conditions in distribution and sales points for safe use and protection from authorities and out-group members. CONCLUSION: Trust and cooperation are crucial in reciprocity networks formed by women who distribute, sell and use inhalants in the streets. These networks compensate for the lack of social security and safety, empower women in the street community, and provide income needed to survive marginality.

Reciprocity With Unequal Payoffs: Cooperative and Uncooperative Interactions Affect Disadvantageous Inequity Aversion.

Cooperation among unrelated individuals can evolve through reciprocity. Reciprocal cooperation is the process in which lasting social interactions provide the opportunity to learn about others' behavior, and to further predict the outcome of future encounters. Lasting social interactions may also decrease aversion to unequal distribution of gains - when individuals accept inequity payoffs knowing about the possibility of future encounters. Thus, reciprocal cooperation and aversion to inequity can be complementary phenomena. The present study investigated the effects of cooperative and uncooperative interactions on participants' aversion to disadvantageous inequity. Participants played an experimental task in the presence of a confederate who acted as a second participant. In reality, the participant interacted with a computer programed to make cooperative and uncooperative choices. After interacting with a cooperative or uncooperative computer, participants chose between blue cards to produce larger gains to the computer and smaller for him/her or green cards to produce equal and smaller gains for both. Results confirmed our first hypothesis that uncooperative interactions would produce aversion to disadvantageous inequity. Lastly, half of the participants were informed that points received during the experiment could be later exchanged for money, and half were not. Results indicated that information about monetary outcomes did not affect aversion to inequity, contradicting our second hypothesis. We discuss these results in the light of theories of reciprocal cooperation, inequity aversion, and conformity.

Late Frontal Negativity Discriminates Outcomes and Intentions in Trust-Repayment Behavior.

Altruism (a costly action that benefits others) and reciprocity (the repayment of acts in kind) differ in that the former expresses preferences about the outcome of a social interaction, whereas the latter requires, in addition, ascribing intentions to others. Interestingly, an individual's behavior and neurophysiological activity under outcome- versus intention-based interactions has not been compared directly using different endowments in the same subject and during the same session. Here, we used a mixed version of the Dictator and the Investment games, together with electroencephalography, to uncover a subject's behavior and brain activity when challenged with endowments of different sizes in contexts that call for an altruistic (outcome-based) versus a reciprocal (intention-based) response. We found that subjects displayed positive or negative reciprocity (reciprocal responses greater or smaller than that for altruism, respectively) depending on the amount of trust they received. Furthermore, a subject's late frontal negativity differed between conditions, predicting responses to trust in intentions-based trials. Finally, brain regions related with mentalizing and cognitive control were the cortical sources of this activity. Thus, our work disentangles the behavioral components present in the repayment of trust, and sheds light on the neural activity underlying the integration of outcomes and perceived intentions in human economic interactions.

Ethics and the Electronic Health Record: Description of An Integrating System of Electronic Health Records in Argentina and a Proposal to Shift Towards a Patient-Centered Conception.

The Electronic Health Record (EHR) constitutes a complete information system useful for patient care, epidemiological studies and public health policies development. We describe the Integrating System of EHRs of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (CABA), established by Law 5669, of 2016. Although we consider the Integrating System of EHRs implemented by CABA very appropriate, we propose, first, that health services no longer store comprehensive EHRs. Instead, complete information would reside in one or several servers sheltered by civil society. Second, information would become integrated only when patients require it and grant access. The patient would now be in a position of strength (complete autonomy). Instead of asking for his data he would be asked for them. In this sense, the patient will have to exercise the emerging responsibility of reciprocity to the benefit of his own care and the care of others.

Tocando a vida com os dedos: reciprocidade na clínica de adolescentes / Touching life with our fingers: reciprocity in the clinic with adolescents / Tocando la vida con los dedos: reciprocidad en la clínica de adolescentes / Toucher la vie avec les doigts: réciprocité dans la clinique des adolescents

No artigo, a autora trata a reciprocidade como a reverberação entre analista e analisando, com foco no trabalho psicanalítico com adolescentes. Entende que é na adolescência que as confusões se ativam mais intensamente. A necessidade de destituir a autoridade dos pais externos confunde-se com a queda dos pais internos, o que deflagra a necessidade de identificação introjetiva -processo que, por sua vez, aparece no apego a figuras sociais, grupos musicais, esportivos e culturais. As ideias aqui desenvolvidas partem do conceito de reciprocidade estética (Meltzer, 1992; 1995), culminando em ampliações sobre os processos de identificação e introjeção, que se desenrolam exatamente nessa troca recíproca.

In this article, the author treats reciprocity as the reverberation between analyst and patient, focusing on psychoanalytic work with adolescents. She understands that it is in adolescence that confusions are most intensely activated. The need to remove the authority of external parents is confused with the fall of internal parents, which triggers the need for introjective identification - a process that, in turn, appears in the attachment to social figures, such as musicians, sportspeople and cultural groups. The ideas developed here are based on the concept of aesthetic reciprocity (Meltzer, 1992; 1995), culminating in expansions on the processes of identification and introjection, which take place exactly in this reciprocal exchange.

En el presente artículo, la autora trata la reciprocidad como la reverberación entre analista y analizando, centrándose en el trabajo psicoanalítico con adolescentes. Ella entiende que es en la adolescencia que las confusiones se activan más intensamente. La necesidad de eliminar la autoridad de los padres externos se confunde con la caída de los padres internos, lo que desencadena la necesidad de una identificación introyectiva, un proceso que, a su vez, aparece en el apego a figuras sociales, grupos musicales, deportivos y culturales. Las ideas desarrolladas aquí parten del concepto de reciprocidad estética (Meltzer, 1992; 1995), que culmina en expansiones en los procesos de identificación e introyección, que tienen lugar exactamente en este intercambio recíproco.

Dans cet article, l'auteur traite la réciprocité comme la réverbération entre l'analyste et l'analysant, en se concentrant sur le travail psychanalytique avec les adolescents. Elle comprend que c'est à l'adolescence que les confusions sont le plus intensément activées. La nécessité de retirer l'autorité des parents externes est confondue avec la chute des parents internes, ce qui déclenche la nécessité d'une identification introjective - un processus qui, à son tour, apparaît comme attaché aux figures sociales, aux groupes musicaux, sportifs et culturels. Les idées développées ici partent du concept de réciprocité esthétique (Meltzer, 1992; 1995), aboutissant à des développements sur les processus d'identification et d'introjection, qui se déroulent exactement dans cet échange réciproque.

O dom e a dádiva entre parteiras do Amapá: uma abordagem etnográfica / The dom and gift among midwives from Amapá: an ethnographic approach

Resumo Este artigo trata das visões de mundo e práticas das parteiras tradicionais que moram em Santana (AP, Brasil). Tendo como base pesquisa de campo de caráter etnográfico e entrevistas semiestruturadas, apresentamos o entendimento dessas mulheres acerca do seu ofício, destacando a centralidade desempenhada pelas noções nativas de dom e de divino nesse universo. Também apresentamos e interpretamos a dimensão simbólica das relações estabelecidas entre essas mulheres, as parturientes e a entidade nomeada por elas como Deus. Neste contexto, observamos que as obrigações relacionadas aos endividamentos não compulsórios no dar-receber-retribuir, apontado na maioria dos estudos sobre parteiras, não se restringem à relação entre família da parturiente e parteira. Na concepção local, as relações relevantes de obrigação concatenadas ao dom para o ofício se estabelecem entre humanos e Deus. Grosso modo, a contradádiva é efetivada no atendimento às gestantes, mas como uma espécie de obrigação diante de Deus. Assim, o atendimento às mulheres que procuram as parteiras é entendido como o meio adequado de saldar a dívida adquirida com o ser divino.

Abstract This article studies the world conceptions and practices of traditional midwives who live and work in Santana (Amapá, Brazil). Based on an ethnographic fieldwork including semi-structured interviews, we present how these women perceive their craft, highlighting the centrality of the category dom and the notion of divine in this universe. We also discuss the symbolic dimension of the relationships established between the midwives, the pregnant women and the entity known by them as God. In this regard, the obligations associated to the non-compulsory debts in the giving, receiving and returning cycle, pointed out by most studies on traditional midwives, are not restricted to the relation between the patient's family and the midwife. According to the local conception, the most relevant relations of obligation associated to the dom for their craft are those established between humans and God. The counter-gift is accomplished through patient care, but as a sort of obligation towards God. Assisting the women who seek midwives is, thus, understood as the adequate means to settle the debt with this divine entity.

Personal trust extends cooperation beyond trustees: A Mexican study.

We studied 2 groups of workers from Oaxaca (Mexico) with different levels of income and education to investigate the role that the affective-based psychological mechanism of personal trust, as evolutionarily acquired, plays on group cooperation. We measured trust levels through some questionnaires and cooperative behaviour through an iterated prisoner's dilemma under different conditions and analysed trust networks of group members. While these groups did not differ in trust levels or cooperation among trustees, they did differ in terms of cooperation with other group members. Such differences are related to dissimilarities in the trust network topology-as a measure of group cohesion. These results suggest that some personal trust networks extend cooperation within a group beyond trustees in a way that complements the role of the reputation for indirect reciprocity.

La imitación y el entonamiento afectivo en el juego social temprano / Imitation and affect attunement in early social play

Con el objetivo de estudiar las pautas adultas de imitación y entonamiento afectivo que ocurren en las situaciones de juego social temprano entre adulto y bebé, se realizó un estudio longitudinal de caso único, con una díada adulto-bebé. La edad del bebé en la primera sesión, según la convención piagetiana [año; mes (día)], fue: 00; 3 (05) y en la última sesión: 00; 6 (28). Se filmaron 8 sesiones de interacción espontánea de la díada, en su hogar, cada 15 días. De cada sesión se seleccionaron los primeros 10 minutos de juego social temprano. Con este material se generó una video-secuencia de juego social temprano a la que se le aplicó un código observacional con categorías para las pautas de actividades de coincidencia maternas (imitación y entonamiento afectivo). Los datos obtenidos en este estudio indican que las actividades de coincidencia maternas de imitación y entonamiento afectivo aparecen en todo el período estudiado, con una frecuencia de dos eventos de coincidencia por minuto de juego social temprano. Se observó que las pautas de entonamiento afectivo materno casi duplican a las de imitación entre los 3 y 6 meses de vida del bebé. Asimismo, se registró que la mayoría de los entonamientos afectivos fueron transmodales y que la madre utilizó su voz como modalidad conductual privilegiada para establecer coincidencias comportamentales con su bebé, ya sea a través de la imitación o del entonamiento. Las imitaciones maternas más frecuentes ocurrieron como respuesta a las vocalizaciones del bebé y los entonamientos afectivos fueron provocados principalmente por los movimientos del bebé.

This paper focuses on two specific matching activities of maternal behavior in early social play: imitation and affect attunement. Imitationis a pattern of frequent interaction between adult and baby, providing a pleasant experience to both participants. In that context, imitation is not only bi-directional, but it is the adult who imitates more frequently. Affect attunement is an intuitive and fleeting interaction pattern, through which the adult attunes to the baby's affective state. It is a matching activity, where the amodal features of the infant's behavior (intensity, temporal organization, spatial pattern and / or quantity) are reflected through a different conduct. Previous research indicates that during the first 6 months of the baby's life, the adult very often uses imitation as well as affect attunement for interacting (which involves performing a different behavior than the baby's in which the adult matches the intensity, temporal pattern, spatial pattern, and / or the amount of the child's original behavior). Maternal affect attunement events have been observed from 2 months of age, and the frequency ratio between affect attunement and maternal imitation has been observed to change in ontogenetic development: between the baby's 2nd and 6th months the adult's imitative activity occurs at higher rates; while in the second half of the first year of life, the relationship is reversed. This paper presents the results of a longitudinal case study on a mother-infant dyad, about maternal imitation and affect attunement behaviors in early social play situations between the 3rd and 6th months of the baby's life. According to Piaget's convention [year; month (day)], the baby's age was 00; 3(05) in the first session, and 00; 6 (28) in the last session. Every 15 days, a total of 8 sessions of the dyad's spontaneous interaction, were filmed in their home. From each session, the first 10 minutes of early social play were selected. With this material a video-sequence of early social play was generated to which an observational code with categories for maternal matching activity patterns (imitation and affect attunement) was applied. The percentage of each category's occurrence in each evolutionary period was calculated. The data obtained in this study indicate that maternal matching activities of imitation and affect attunement appear from the beginning of the studied period. These results confirm those previously obtained in other studies that show the early emergence of adult imitation and affect attunement behavioral patterns. The data also indicate that matching activities of imitation and affect attunement appear throughout the studied period with a frequency of two events perminute of early social play. These results partially confirm those previously obtained in other studies. The new information obtained in our study concerns the frequency of both reciprocity patterns, and the type of behavior of the mother and baby involved in these matching activities. Patterns of maternal affect attunement almost double those of imitation between the baby's 3rd and 6th months. It was also reported that most affect attunements were transmodal and that the mother used her voice as a privileged way to establish a behavioral match with her baby, either through imitation or affect attunement. The most frequent maternal imitations occurred in response to the baby's vocalizations, and affect attunements were caused mainly by the baby's movements. Without detracting from the dyad's intense vocal activity already registered in the field's literature, the high frequency of affect attunements in response to infant movement highlights a trait less noticed in previous research: the adult's mastery in reading the baby's body and movement.

Universals and cultural diversity in the expression of gratitude.

Gratitude is argued to have evolved to motivate and maintain social reciprocity among people, and to be linked to a wide range of positive effects-social, psychological and even physical. But is socially reciprocal behaviour dependent on the expression of gratitude, for example by saying 'thank you' as in English? Current research has not included cross-cultural elements, and has tended to conflate gratitude as an emotion with gratitude as a linguistic practice, as might appear to be the case in English. Here, we ask to what extent people express gratitude in different societies by focusing on episodes of everyday life where someone seeks and obtains a good, service or support from another, comparing these episodes across eight languages from five continents. We find that expressions of gratitude in these episodes are remarkably rare, suggesting that social reciprocity in everyday life relies on tacit understandings of rights and duties surrounding mutual assistance and collaboration. At the same time, we also find minor cross-cultural variation, with slightly higher rates in Western European languages English and Italian, showing that universal tendencies of social reciprocity should not be equated with more culturally variable practices of expressing gratitude. Our study complements previous experimental and culture-specific research on gratitude with a systematic comparison of audiovisual corpora of naturally occurring social interaction from different cultures from around the world.

Un acercamiento al Clima Organizacional / An approach to organizational climate

RESUMEN Introducción: El clima organizacional constituye uno de los elementos a considerar en los procesos organizativos de la gestión, cambio e innovación. Por su repercusión inmediata adquiere relevancia, tanto en los procesos como en los resultados y ello incide directamente en la calidad del propio sistema y su desarrollo. Objetivo: Sistematizar la definición de clima organizacional, teniendo en consideración su relación en el ámbito laboral en la práctica de la enfermería. Métodos: Se realizó análisis de contenido de documentos, que incluyó artículos originales y de revisión publicados desde el año 2001 al 2014, con las siguientes palabras clave: clima organizacional, características, dimensiones en SciELO. Se identificaron y revisaron artículos que fueron útiles para el desarrollo de la revisión, así monografías de varias revistas y tesis doctorales actualizadas que permitieron el análisis histórico lógico de la evolución de la definición del clima organizacional. Conclusiones: La sistematización de los términos relacionados con el clima organizacional, permitió definir el clima organizacional, las características y dimensiones, algunos autores que se han dedicado al estudio del clima organizacional en el mundo han establecido su definición, objetivos, dimensiones, importancia, teorías e instrumentos para su medición sin embargo se hace necesario su conocimiento para el mejoramiento de la calidad en las instituciones del mismo(AU)

ABSTRACT Introduction: Organizational climate is one of the elements to consider in organizational processes, management, change and innovation. For immediate impact becomes relevant in both processes and results and this directly impacts on the quality of the system itself and its development. Objective: To systematize the definition of organizational climate, taking into consideration their relationship in the workplace in nursing practice. Methods: Organizational climate, characteristics, dimensions: content analysis of documents, including original and review reports with the following keywords items is done. They were identified and reviewed articles that were useful for the development of the review, several magazines and monographs and doctoral theses to date that allowed the logical historical analysis of the evolution of the definition of organizational climate. Conclusions: The systematization of terms related to organizational climate, allowed to define the organizational climate, the characteristics and dimensions, some authors who have dedicated themselves to the study of organizational climate in the world have established their definition, objectives, dimensions, importance, theories and instruments for measuring however their knowledge to improve the quality of institutions it is necessary(AU)

Contrato psicológico en empleados mexicanos: Creencias de obligaciones relacionales y transaccionales / Psychological contract in Mexican employees: Relational and transactional obligations beliefs

Resumen Se examinan las creencias de una muestra de empleados mexicanos sobre las obligaciones recíprocas en la relación empleado-empleador, con base en los tipos de Contrato Psicológico Relacional y Transaccional. Se realizó un estudio no experimental, correlacional, transversal. Participaron 345 empleados de diversas organizaciones de la Ciudad de México. Se pusieron a prueba modelos PATH sobre la relación de las creencias del empleado sobre las obligaciones empleado-empleador. En el modelo Relacional, se identificaron antecedentes sobre las creencias de Lealtad y Seguridad, el modelo mostró menos variables independientes con un mayor nivel predictivo. En el modelo Transaccional se identificaron más variables independientes relacionadas con un menor nivel predictivo. Se señala la necesidad de proponer modelos predictivos con otras variables, como el compromiso, la justicia y la adherencia organizacional, la satisfacción laboral, el desempeño y la rotación. Esta investigación contribuye a la Teoría del Intercambio Social en las Organizaciones y la dinámica del Contrato Psicológico como un enfoque que puede ayudar en la definición de estrategias, políticas organizacionales y prácticas orientadas a relaciones laborales sanas en México.

Abstract Based on Social Exchange Theory in Organizations, this research examines the beliefs of Mexican employees about reciprocal obligations in the employee-employer relationship, operationalize on the types of Relational and Transactional Psychological Contract. A non-experimental, correlational, cross-sectional study was performed. A total of 345 employees from diferent organizations from Mexico City participated. Correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and PATH models were conducted. Results of goodness of fit of the measurement model for each tipe of psychological contract are shown to add evidence of validity of the PCI (Psychological Contract Inventory) in Mexican population, as well as acceptable Cronbach Alpha index were founded. Evidence of a reciprocity Relational model was found; this model identifies employer obligation beliefs as antecedents that influenced the employee's Loyalty and Safety beliefs. Evidence of a Transactional model was found; this model identifies antecedents that influenced the beliefs of a Short-Term employment relationship whit a Limited approach. These research marks the opportunity for similar studies in different employee groups and industries. The knowledge and study of the Psychological Contract in Mexico can help organizations to clearly define their internal policies of employment relationships that benefit to both employer and employees. This research proposes the dynamics of the Psychological Contract in the study of employment relationships in Mexico as a powerful approach that provides clarity in the explanation of reciprocity in the workplace.

Sociocultural and ecological factors influencing management of edible and non-edible plants: the case of Ixcatlán, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Identifying factors influencing plant management allows understanding how processes of domestication operate. Uncertain availability of resources is a main motivation for managing edible plants, but little is known about management motives of non-edible resources like medicinal and ceremonial plants. We hypothesized that uncertain availability of resources would be a general factor motivating their management, but other motives could operate simultaneously. Uncertainty and risk might be less important motives in medicinal than in edible plants, while for ceremonial plants, symbolic and spiritual values would be more relevant. METHODS: We inventoried edible, medicinal, and ceremonial plants in Ixcatlán, Oaxaca, Mexico, and conducted in-depth studies with 20 native and naturalized species per use type; we documented their cultural importance and abundance by interviewing 25 households and sampling vegetation in 33 sites. Consumption amounts and preferences were studied through surveys and free listings with 38 interviewees. Management intensity and risk indexes were calculated through PCA and their relation analyzed through regression analyses. Canonical methods allowed identifying the main sociocultural and ecological factors influencing management of plants per use type. RESULTS: Nearly 64, 63, and 55% of all ceremonial, edible, and medicinal wild plants recorded, respectively, are managed in order to maintain or increase their availability, embellishing environments, and because of ethical reasons and curiosity. Management intensity was higher in edible plants under human selection and associated with risk. Management of ceremonial and medicinal plants was not associated with indexes of risk or uncertainty in their availability. Other sociocultural and ecological factors influence management intensity, the most important being reciprocal relations and abundance perception. CONCLUSIONS: Plant management through practices and collectively regulated strategies is strongly related to control of risk and uncertainty in edible plants, compared with medicinal and ceremonial plants, in which reciprocal interchanges, curiosity, and spiritual values are more important factors. Understanding how needs, worries, social relations, and ethical values influence management decisions is important to understand processes of constructing management strategies and how domestication could be started in the past and are operated at the present.

Norma pessoal de reciprocidade: evidências de validade e precisão de uma medida / Personal norm of reciprocity: evidendence of validity and reliability of a measure / Norma personal de reciprocidad: evidencias de validez y precisión de una medida

O presente estudo objetivou adaptar para o contexto brasileiro o Questionário Norma Pessoal de Reciprocidade (QNPR), reunindo evidências de sua validade fatorial e consistência interna. Participaram 203 universitários, com idade média de 20,6 anos (DP = 4,54). Os dados foram analisados separadamente para crenças e comportamentos em reciprocidade. A primeira parte referente às crenças na reciprocidade contou com nove itens, com alfa de Cronbach de 0,66 e saturações variando de 0,33 a 0,65; na parte referente aos comportamentos em reciprocidade, dois componentes emergiram: o primeiro denominado reciprocidade negativa contou com nove itens, com saturações variando de 0,46 a 0,80 e alfa de Cronbach de 0,85 enquanto o segundo componente foi denominado reciprocidade positiva, e contou com sete itens e saturações variando de 0,46 a 0,76, com alfa de Cronbach de 0,74. Concluiu-se que esses achados apoiam a adequação psicométrica deste instrumento, que apresenta evidências de validade e precisão.

This study aimed at adapting to the Brazilian context the Personal Norm of Reciprocity Questionnaire (PNRQ), gathering evidence of its factorial validity and internal consistency. 203 students participated, with average age of 20.6 years (SD = 4.54). Data were analyzed separately for beliefs and behaviors in reciprocity. The first part refers to the beliefs of reciprocity had nine items with Cronbach's alpha of 0.66 and saturations ranging from 0.33 to 0.65. The part referring to reciprocity behavior emerged two components, the first called negative reciprocity had nine items, with saturations ranging from 0.46 to 0.80 and Cronbach's alpha of 0.85 as the second component was called positive reciprocity, and had seven items and saturations ranging from 0.46 to 0.76, with Cronbach's alpha of 0.74. We have concluded that these findings support the psychometric adequacy of this instrument, which shows evidence of validity and reliability.

Este estudio objetivó adaptar al contexto brasileño el Cuestionario Norma Personal de Reciprocidad (CNPR), reuniendo evidencias de su validez factorial y consistencia interna. Participaron 203 universitarios, con edad media de 20,6 años (DP = 4,54). Los datos se analizaron por separado para las creencias y comportamientos en la reciprocidad. La primera parte se refiere a las creencias en la reciprocidad y contó con nueve ítems, con alfa de Cronbach de 0,66 y saturaciones entre 0,33 y 0,65. La parte relacionada a los comportamientos en reciprocidad surgió dos componentes, el primero llamado reciprocidad negativa contó con nueve ítems, con saturaciones entre 0,46 y 0,80 y alfa de Cronbach de 0,85. El segundo componente llamado reciprocidad positiva, contó con siete ítems y saturaciones entre 0,46 y 0,76, con alfa de Cronbach de 0,74. Se concluyó que estos resultados apoyan la adecuación psicométrica de este instrumento, que presenta evidencias de validez y precisión.

Social bet-hedging in vampire bats.

Helping kin or nonkin can provide direct fitness benefits, but helping kin also benefits indirect fitness. Why then should organisms invest in cooperative partnerships with nonkin, if kin relationships are available and more beneficial? One explanation is that a kin-limited support network is too small and risky. Even if additional weaker partnerships reduce immediate net cooperative returns, individuals extending cooperation to nonkin can maintain a larger social network which reduces the potential costs associated with losing a primary cooperation partner. Just as financial or evolutionary bet-hedging strategies can reduce risk, investing in quantity of social relationships at the expense of relationship quality ('social bet-hedging') can reduce the risks posed by unpredictable social environments. Here, we provide evidence for social bet-hedging in food-sharing vampire bats. When we experimentally removed a key food-sharing partner, females that previously fed a greater number of unrelated females suffered a smaller reduction in food received. Females that invested in more nonkin bonds did not do better under normal conditions, but they coped better with partner loss. Hence, loss of a key partner revealed the importance of weaker nonkin bonds. Social bet-hedging can have important implications for social network structure by influencing how individuals form relationships.

Equidad en el apoyo social recíproco y satisfacción vital en personas mayores / Equity in the Reciprocal Social Support and Life Satisfaction in Older People

RESUMEN Se examinó la asociación entre equidad en el apoyo social y bienestar en personas mayores españolas (Rango 60-98, M = 74.04; DE = 7.75; N = 585). Se obtuvo información sobre variables sociodemográficas y de autonomía funcional, miembros activos de varias redes de apoyo, apoyo dado y recibido emocional e instrumental y satisfacción vital. La equidad caracteriza la mayoría de los intercambios de apoyo de los mayores con sus redes familiares y sociales. Los intercambios recíprocos equitativos y ser proveedor activo en el intercambio, se relacionan positivamente con la satisfacción vital en la vejez. La naturaleza del apoyo emocional o instrumental modifica esos resultados. La Teoría de la Equidad obtiene más evidencia empírica que la Teoría del Intercambio Social.

ABSTRACT The association between perceived equity in social support and wellbeing was examined in older people (Age 60-98, M = 74.11; SD = 7.92; N = 585). Data were from a study at Salamanca (Spain). Information was obtained about socio-demographic and functional autonomy variables, active members from several support networks, given and received support of instrumental and emotional type, and a life satisfaction index. The equity defines the majority of support exchanges that elderly maintain with their kin and non-kin networks. Balanced reciprocal exchanges, besides the capacity to be an active provider in exchange, are positively related to life satisfaction in old age. The nature of the emotional or instrumental support modifies these results. Equity Theory gets more empirical evidence than Social Exchange Theory.

Direct reciprocity in animals: The roles of bonding and affective processes.

The presence of direct reciprocity in animals is a debated topic, because, despite its evolutionary plausibility, it is believed to be uncommon. Some authors claim that stable reciprocal exchanges require sophisticated cognition which has acted as a constraint on its evolution across species. In contrast, a more recent trend of research has focused on the possibility that direct reciprocity occurs within long-term bonds and relies on simple as well as more complex affective mechanisms such as emotional book-keeping, rudimentary and higher forms of empathy, and inequity aversion, among others. First, we present evidence supporting the occurrence of long-term reciprocity in the context of existing bonds in social birds and mammals. Second, we discuss the evidence for affective responses which, modulated by bonding, may underlie altruistic behaviours in different species. We conclude that the mechanisms that may underlie reciprocal exchanges are diverse, and that some act in interaction with bonding processes. From simple associative learning in social contexts, through emotional contagion and behavioural mimicry, to empathy and a sense of fairness, widespread and diverse social affective mechanisms may explain why direct reciprocity may not be a rare phenomenon among social vertebrates.

Reciprocal Exchange Patterned by Market Forces Helps Explain Cooperation in a Small-Scale Society.

Social organisms sometimes depend on help from reciprocating partners to solve adaptive problems [1], and individual cooperation strategies should aim to offer high supply commodities at low cost to the donor in exchange for high-demand commodities with large return benefits [2, 3]. Although such market dynamics have been documented in some animals [4-7], naturalistic studies of human cooperation are often limited by focusing on single commodities [8]. We analyzed cooperation in five domains (meat sharing, produce sharing, field labor, childcare, and sick care) among 2,161 household dyads of Tsimane' horticulturalists, using Bayesian multilevel models and information-theoretic model comparison. Across domains, the best-fit models included kinship and residential proximity, exchanges in kind and across domains, measures of supply and demand and their interactions with exchange, and household-specific exchange slopes. In these best models, giving, receiving, and reciprocating were to some extent shaped by market forces, and reciprocal exchange across domains had a strong partial effect on cooperation independent of more exogenous factors like kinship and proximity. Our results support the view that reciprocal exchange can provide a reliable solution to adaptive problems [8-11]. Although individual strategies patterned by market forces may generate gains from trade in any species [3], humans' slow life history and skill-intensive foraging niche favor specialization and create interdependence [12, 13], thus stabilizing cooperation and fostering divisions of labor even in informal economies [14, 15].