Bone Grafts in Dental Medicine: An Overview of Autografts, Allografts and Synthetic Materials.

This review provides an overview of various materials used in dentistry and oral and maxillofacial surgeries to replace or repair bone defects. The choice of material depends on factors such as tissue viability, size, shape, and defect volume. While small bone defects can regenerate naturally, extensive defects or loss or pathological fractures require surgical intervention and the use of substitute bones. Autologous bone, taken from the patient's own body, is the gold standard for bone grafting but has drawbacks such as uncertain prognosis, surgery at the donor site, and limited availability. Other alternatives for medium and small-sized defects include allografts (from human donors), xenografts (from animals), and synthetic materials with osteoconductive properties. Allografts are carefully selected and processed human bone materials, while xenografts are derived from animals and possess similar chemical composition to human bone. Synthetic materials such as ceramics and bioactive glasses are used for small defects but may lack osteoinductivity and moldability. Calcium-phosphate-based ceramics, particularly hydroxyapatite, are extensively studied and commonly used due to their compositional similarity to natural bone. Additional components, such as growth factors, autogenous bone, and therapeutic elements, can be incorporated into synthetic or xenogeneic scaffolds to enhance their osteogenic properties. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of grafting materials in dentistry, discussing their properties, advantages, and disadvantages. It also highlights the challenges of analyzing in vivo and clinical studies to select the most suitable option for specific situations.

Bone Grafts and Substitutes in Dentistry: A Review of Current Trends and Developments.

After tooth loss, bone resorption is irreversible, leaving the area without adequate bone volume for successful implant treatment. Bone grafting is the only solution to reverse dental bone loss and is a well-accepted procedure required in one in every four dental implants. Research and development in materials, design and fabrication technologies have expanded over the years to achieve successful and long-lasting dental implants for tooth substitution. This review will critically present the various dental bone graft and substitute materials that have been used to achieve a successful dental implant. The article also reviews the properties of dental bone grafts and various dental bone substitutes that have been studied or are currently available commercially. The various classifications of bone grafts and substitutes, including natural and synthetic materials, are critically presented, and available commercial products in each category are discussed. Different bone substitute materials, including metals, ceramics, polymers, or their combinations, and their chemical, physical, and biocompatibility properties are explored. Limitations of the available materials are presented, and areas which require further research and development are highlighted. Tissue engineering hybrid constructions with enhanced bone regeneration ability, such as cell-based or growth factor-based bone substitutes, are discussed as an emerging area of development.

On the Use of Black Ti as a Bone Substituting Biomaterial: Behind the Scenes of Dual-Functionality.

Despite the potential of small-scale pillars of black titanium (bTi) for killing the bacteria and directing the fate of stem cells, not much is known about the effects of the pillars' design parameters on their biological properties. Here, three distinct bTi surfaces are designed and fabricated through dry etching of the titanium, each featuring different pillar designs. The interactions of the surfaces with MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cells and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria are then investigated. Pillars with different heights and spatial organizations differently influence the morphological characteristics of the cells, including their spreading area, aspect ratio, nucleus area, and cytoskeletal organization. The preferential formation of focal adhesions (FAs) and their size variations also depend on the type of topography. When the pillars are neither fully separated nor extremely tall, the colocalization of actin fibers and FAs as well as an enhanced matrix mineralization are observed. However, the killing efficiency of these pillars against the bacteria is not as high as that of fully separated and tall pillars. This study provides a new perspective on the dual-functionality of bTi surfaces and elucidates how the surface design and fabrication parameters can be used to achieve a surface topography with balanced bactericidal and osteogenic properties.

In vivo systemic toxicity assessment of an oxidized dextrin-based hydrogel and its effectiveness as a carrier and stabilizer of granular synthetic bone substitutes.

The worldwide incidence of bone disorders is raising, mainly due to aging population. The lack of effective treatments is pushing the development of synthetic bone substitutes (SBSs). Most ceramic-based SBSs commercially available display limited handling properties. Attempting to solve these issues and achieve wider acceptance by the clinicians, granular ceramics have been associated with hydrogels (HGs) to produce injectable/moldable SBSs. Dextrin, a low-molecular-weight carbohydrate, was used to develop a fully resorbable and injectable HG. It was first oxidized with sodium periodate and then cross-linked with adipic acid dihydrazide. The in vivo biocompatibility and safety of the dextrin-based HG was assessed by subacute systemic toxicity and skin sensitization tests, using rodent models. The results showed that the HG did not induce any systemic toxic effect, skin reaction, or genotoxicity, neither impaired the bone repair/regeneration process. Then, the HG was successfully combined with granular bone substitute, registered as Bonelike (250-500 µm) to obtain a moldable/injectable SBS, which was implanted in tibial fractures in goats for 3 and 6 weeks. The obtained results showed that HG allowed the stabilization of the granules into the defect, ensuring effective handling, and molding properties of the formulation, as well as an efficient cohesion of the granules. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 107A: 1678-1689, 2019.

Use of Stimulan absorbable calcium sulphate beads in revision lower limb arthroplasty: Safety profile and complication rates.

AIMS: Calcium sulphate has traditionally been used as a filler of dead space arising during surgery. Various complications have been described following the use of Stimulan bio-absorbable calcium sulphate beads. This study is a prospective observational study to assess the safety profile of these beads when used in revision arthroplasty, comparing the complication rates with those reported in the literature. METHODS: A total of 755 patients who underwent 456 revision total knee arthroplasties (TKA) and 299 revision total hip arthroplasties (THA), with a mean follow-up of 35 months (0 to 78) were included in the study. RESULTS: A total of 32 patients (4.2%) had wound drainage, and this was higher with higher bead volumes and in McPherson grade C patients. There was also a significantly higher bead volume in the 41 patients who developed hypercalcaemia, two of which were symptomatic (p < 0.0001). A total of 13 patients (1.7%) had heterotopic ossification (HO). There was no statistically significant relationship between the development of HO and bead volume (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The strength of this study lies in the large number of patients and the detailed data collection, making it the most comprehensive report available in the literature on the use of calcium sulphate-based bone substitutes.Cite this article: R. Kallala, W. Edwin Harris, M. Ibrahim, M. Dipane, E. McPherson. Use of Stimulan absorbable calcium sulphate beads in revision lower limb arthroplasty: Safety profile and complication rates. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:570-579. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.710.BJR-2017-0319.R1.

Molecular, Cellular and Pharmaceutical Aspects of Synthetic Hydroxyapatite Bone Substitutes for Oral and Maxillofacial Grafting.

Bone grafts are widely used for augmentation procedures in oral and maxillofacial surgery, with autogenous bone being the gold standard. Recently, the focus of research has shifted towards synthetic bone substitutes, as no second surgery is needed and large quantities of graft can easily be provided. Within the broad range of bone substitutes, synthetic hydroxyapatite has drawn much attention, as they are considered to be biocompatible, non-immunogenic, osteoconductive and osteoinductive. Scope of this review is to summarize existing knowledge concerning the molecular, cellular and pharmaceutical aspects of synthetic bone substitutes for oral and maxillofacial grafting.

Fantastic plastic? Experimental evaluation of polyurethane bone substitutes as proxies for human bone in trauma simulations.

Recent years have seen steady improvements in the recognition and interpretation of violence related injuries in human skeletal remains. Such work has at times benefited from the involvement of biological anthropologists in forensic casework and has often relied upon comparison of documented examples with trauma observed in skeletal remains. In cases where no such example exists investigators must turn to experimentation. The selection of experimental samples is problematic as animal proxies may be too dissimilar to humans and human cadavers may be undesirable for a raft of reasons. The current article examines a third alternative in the form of polyurethane plates and spheres marketed as viable proxies for human bone in ballistic experiments. Through subjecting these samples to a range of impacts from both modern and archaic missile weapons it was established that such material generally responds similarly to bone on a broad, macroscopic scale but when examined in closer detail exhibits a range of dissimilarities that call for caution in extrapolating such results to real bone.

BMP2-loaded hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres exhibit enhanced osteoinduction and osteogenicity in large bone defects.

The regeneration of large bone defects is an osteoinductive, osteoconductive, and osteogenic process that often requires a bone graft for support. Limitations associated with naturally autogenic or allogenic bone grafts have demonstrated the need for synthetic substitutes. The present study investigates the feasibility of using novel hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres as an osteoconductive matrix and a carrier for controlled local delivery of bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), a potent osteogenic inducer of bone regeneration. Hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres (100±25 µm) with a core (60±18 µm) and a mesoporous shell (180±42 m(2)/g surface area) were prepared by a glass conversion technique and loaded with recombinant human BMP2 (1 µg/mg). There was a gentle burst release of BMP2 from microspheres into the surrounding phosphate-buffered saline in vitro within the initial 48 hours, and continued at a low rate for over 40 days. In comparison with hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres without BMP2 or soluble BMP2 without a carrier, BMP2-loaded hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres had a significantly enhanced capacity to reconstitute radial bone defects in rabbit, as shown by increased serum alkaline phosphatase; quick and complete new bone formation within 12 weeks; and great biomechanical flexural strength. These results indicate that BMP2-loaded hollow hydroxyapatite microspheres could be a potential new option for bone graft substitutes in bone regeneration.

High protracted (99m)Tc-HDP uptake in synthetic bone implants - a potentially misleading incidental finding on bone scintigraphy.

We report the case of a 56-year-old male with bilateral total knee prostheses suffering from bilateral knee pain mainly on the right side and referred for bone scintigraphy. The medical history of the patient revealed an opening wedge high tibial osteotomy performed nine years earlier, with insertion of two blocks of ceramic made of hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate in a wedge configuration as synthetic bone substitutes. The porous structure of these implants is analogous to the architecture of cancellous bone and permits fibrovascular and bone ingrowth, promoting the healing process. Planar scintigraphy and SPECT/CT showed an intense uptake within those implants in the early phase as well as in the late phase of the bone scan. It also showed bilateral patellofemoral arthritis. A (99m)Tc-labeled antigranulocyte antibody scintigraphy was negative for infection or inflammation. Bilateral patellar resurfacing led to complete symptom regression, confirmed at 10 months follow-up. To the best of our knowledge, this scintigraphic pattern with such a high tracer uptake reflecting bone substitute osteointegration has not yet been published. This should be considered in patients with such bone replacement materials that are increasingly used, in order to avoid false diagnosis of inflammation or infection.

Osteoconductive and osseointegration properties of a commercial hydroxyapatite compared to a synthetic product / Comparación de las propiedades de osteoconducción y osteointegración de una hidroxiapatita reabsorbible comercial con una hidroxiapatita reabsorbible sintetizada / Comparação das propriedades da osteocondução e osteointegração de uma hidroxiapatita reabsorvivel comercial sintetizada

The effects of two types of hydroxylapatite on bone synthesis and properties were evaluated. An osteoconductive resorbable hydroxyapatite (OseoU), synthesized at two different temperatures of calcination (Type A and Type B) was compared with a commercial mixture of hydroxyapatite (Osteogen®), commonly used in several surgical procedures involving bone loss. The synthesis was performed in the laboratories of the University of Antioquia by precipitating a mixture of calcium nitrate and ammonium phosphate. The products obtained and the commercial hydroxyapatite were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X- ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Osteoconductive and osseointegration characteristics were measured according to the products ability to induce local cell differentiation into bone forming cells. These characteristics were evaluated in hydroxyapatite implants performed in 70 New Zealand breed rabbits distributed into seven groups of 10 animals each, tested at 7, 14, 21, 28, 42, 60 and 90 days after the surgical procedure.

En el presente artículo se evalúan las propiedades de osteoconducción y osteointegración de una hidroxiapatita reabsorbible (OseoU), procesada a dos temperaturas diferentes de calcinación (Tipo A y Tipo B), con el propósito de compararlas con un preparado comercial de hidroxiapatita (Osteogen®), utilizado para múltiples procedimientos quirúrgicos en los cuales se involucra la pérdida de tejido óseo. La síntesis se realizó en los laboratorios de la Universidad de Antioquia por el método de precipitación acuosa de la mezcla de nitrato de calcio y de fosfato de amonio. Los productos obtenidos y la hidroxiapatita comercial fueron caracterizados por microscopia electrónica de barrido (SEM), difracción de rayos X (DRX), espectroscopia de infrarrojo transformada de Fourier (FTIR) y espectrometría por energía dispersiva (EDS). Las características de osteoconducción y osteointegración fueron medidas de acuerdo a la capacidad de los productos para inducir la diferenciación de células locales a células formadoras de hueso. Dichas características, se evaluaron en implantes de hidroxiapatita realizados en 70 conejos de la raza Nueva Zelanda distribuidos en siete grupos de 10 animales cada uno, evaluados a los 7, 14, 21, 28, 42, 60 y 90 días de efectuado el procedimiento quirúrgico. Los resultados obtenidos demostraron que el OseoU y el Osteogen®, presentaron características similares en cuanto a la estructura cristalina, la composición química y la adsorción, con apreciables diferencias morfológicas con respecto a la forma de las partículas. Al realizar el análisis de varianza no se encontraron diferencias estadísticas significativas para las variables histopatológicas evaluadas en las dos hidroxiapatitas (p>0.05), indicando que las hidroxiapatitas sintetizadas en la Universidad de Antioquia (OseoU) tuvieron el mismo resultado que la hidroxiapatita comercial (Osteogen®) en la osteoconducción y la osteointegración del tejido óseo.

No presente estudo foram avaliadas as propriedades de ostecondução e osteointegração de uma hidroxiapatita reabsorvivel (OseoU), processada a duas temperaturas de calcinaçao (Tipo A e B), com o propósito de serem comparadas com um produto comercial (Osteogen®), utilizado para múltiples procedimentos cirúrgicos nos quais se envolve a perda do tecido osso. Asíntese foi realizada nos laboratorios da Universidad de Antioquia pelo método de precipitação aquosa da mistura de nitrato de cálcio e fosfato de amônio. Os produtos obtidos e a hidroxiapatita comercial foram caracterizados por microscopia eletrônica de barrido (SEM), difração raios X (DRX), espectroscopia de infravermelho transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e espectrometria por energia dispersiva (EDS). As características de osteocondução e osteointegração foram mensuradas de acordo à capacidade dos produtos para induzir a diferenciação das células locais formadoras do osso. Estas características foram avaliadas em implantações de hidroxiapatita realizadas em 70 coelhos da raça Nova Zelândia distribuídos em sete grupos de 10 animais cada um, avaliados aos 7, 14, 21, 28, 42, 60 e 90 dias de efetuado o procedimento cirúrgico. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que o OseoU e o Osteogen® apresentaram características similares em quanto à estrutura cristalina, a comparação química e à absorção, com apreciáveis diferenças morfológicas com respeito à forma das partículas. Ao realizar as análises de variâncias não foram encontradas diferencias estatísticas significativas para as variáveis histopatológicas avaliadas nas duas hidroxiapatitas (p>0.05), indicando que as hidroxiapatitas sintetizadas na Universidad de Antioquia (OseoU) tiveram o mesmo resultado que a hidroxiapatita comercial (Osteogen®) em osteocondução e osteointegração do tecido ósseo.