Genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium species from diarrhoeic ungulates in the United Arab Emirates.

Cryptosporidiosis has previously been reported in animals, humans, and water sources in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). However, most reports were only to the genus level, or generically identified as cryptosporidiosis. We aimed to investigate the genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium species occurring in diarrhetic ungulates which were brought to the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL) in Dubai. Using a combination of microscopic and molecular methods, we identified five species of Cryptosporidium occurring among ungulates in the UAE, namely C. parvum, C. hominis, C. xiaoi, C. meleagridis, and C. equi. Cryptosporidium parvum was the most prevalent species in our samples. Furthermore, we identified subtypes of C. parvum and C. hominis, which are involved in both human and animal cryptosporidiosis. This is also the first reported occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in the Arabian Tahr, to our knowledge. Since the animals examined were all in contact with humans, the possibility of zoonotic spread is possible. Our study correlates with previous reports in the region, building upon the identification of Cryptosporidium sp. However, there is a need to further investigate the endemic populations of Cryptosporidium, including more hosts, sampling asymptomatic animals, and location data.

Comparing efficiencies of population control methods for responding to introductions of transboundary animal diseases in wild pigs.

Introductions of transboundary animal diseases (TADs) into free-ranging wildlife can be difficult to control and devastating for domestic livestock trade. Combating a new TAD introduction in wildlife with an emergency response requires quickly limiting spread of the disease by intensely removing wild animals within a contiguous area. In the case of African swine fever virus (ASFv) in wild pigs (Sus scrofa), which has been spreading in many regions of the world, there is little information on the time- and cost-efficiency of methods for intensively and consistently culling wild pigs and recovering carcasses in an emergency response scenario. We compared the efficiencies of aerial operations, trapping, experimental toxic baiting, and ground shooting in northcentral Texas, USA during two months in 2023. Culling and recovering carcasses of wild pigs averaged a rate of 0.15 wild pigs/person hour and cost an average of $233.04/wild pig ($USD 2023) across all four methods. Aerial operations required the greatest initial investment but subsequently was the most time- and cost-efficient, costing an average of $7266 to reduce the population by a standard measure of 10 %, including recovering carcasses. Aerial operations required a ground crew of ∼7 people/helicopter to recover carcasses. Costs for reducing the population of wild pigs using trapping were similar, although took 13.5 times longer to accomplish. In cases where carcass recovery and disposal are needed (e.g., response to ASFv), a benefit of trapping was immediate carcass recovery. Toxic baiting was less efficient because both culling and carcass recovery required substantial time. We culled very few wild pigs with ground shooting in this landscape. Our results provide insight on the efficiencies of each removal method. Strategically combining removal methods may increase overall efficiency. Overall, our findings inform the preparation of resources, personnel needs, and deployment readiness for TAD responses involving wild pigs.

Comparative analysis of the gut microbiome of ungulate species from Qinghai-Xizang plateau.

Several studies have investigated the gut bacterial composition of wild ungulates in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. However, the relationship between their gut microbiome dendrograms and their phylogenetic tree remains unclear. In this study, we analyzed 45 amplicons (V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene) from five wild ungulates-Pseudois nayaur, Pantholops hodgsonii, Gazella subgutturosa, Bos grunniens, and Equus kiang-from the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau to clarify the relationship between their phylogenies and gut microbiome dendrograms. The unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis indicated that G. subgutturosa is closely related to P. nayaur; however, these results were inconsistent with their phylogenetic trees. Additionally, the indicator genera in the microbiome of each wild ungulate showed strong associations with the diets and habitats of their host. Thus, diet and space niche differentiation may primarily account for the differences between the gut microbiome characteristics of these wild ungulates and their phylogeny. In summary, our research provides insights into the evolutionary factors influencing the gut microbiome of wild ungulates in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

The expanding host range of lumpy skin disease virus in wild and domestic animals.

Clinical lumpy skin disease (LSD) predominantly affects cattle and, to lesser extent domestic water buffalos. Whilst earlier work focussed on the disease in Africa, the recent emergence of LSD virus (LSDV) as a major cause of disease in Asia has led to a widening range of susceptible hosts for the virus. This article lists the wild and domestic ungulates in which LSDV infection has been confirmed and considers the significance of the disease for these species in Asia.

Genome-wide SNP assessment of contemporary European red deer genetic structure highlights the distinction of peripheral populations and the main admixture zones in Europe.

Genome-wide technologies open up new possibilities to clarify questions on genetic structure and phylogeographic history of taxa previously studied with microsatellite loci and mitochondrial sequences. Here, we used 736 individual red deer (Cervus elaphus) samples genotyped at 35,701 single nucleotide polymorphism loci (SNPs) to assess the population structure of the species throughout Europe. The results identified 28 populations, with higher degrees of genetic distinction in peripheral compared to mainland populations. Iberian red deer show high genetic differentiation, with lineages in Western and Central Iberia maintaining their distinctiveness, which supports separate refugial ranges within Iberia along with little recent connection between Iberian and the remaining Western European populations. The Norwegian population exhibited the lowest variability and the largest allele frequency differences from mainland European populations, compatible with a history of bottlenecks and drift during post-glacial colonization from southern refugia. Scottish populations showed high genetic distance from the mainland but high levels of diversity. Hybrid zones were found between Eastern and Western European lineages in Central Europe as well as in the Pyrenees, where red deer from France are in close contact with Iberian red deer. Anthropogenic restocking has promoted the Pyrenean contact zone, admixture events in populations on the Isle of Rum and in the Netherlands, and at least partly the admixture of the two main lineages in central-eastern Europe. Our analysis enabled detailed resolution of population structure of a large mammal widely distributed throughout Europe and contributes to resolving the evolutionary history, which can also inform conservation and management policies.

Physiological Auricular and Cornual Asymmetries of the Sanmartinero Creole Bovine.

Asymmetric studies can indicate disturbances in the developmental process. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is considered an indicator of stress. The Sanmartinero (SM) creole bovine is native to the department of Meta (Colombian Orinoquia) and its adaptation process has allowed it to live in extreme tropical environments. The aim of this cross-sectional and descriptive study was to present the current state of the knowledge of asymmetries in some cephalic characters of the SM creole bovine. A total of 94 animals were studied (18 uncastrated males and 76 females) from three different farms, with an age range of 0.5-10 years. For each animal, two measurements of the ear (width and length) and two measurements of the horn (perimeter and length) were obtained in vivo. The degree of asymmetry was calculated as (R - L)/(R + L). Bilateral differences pointed towards a fluctuating asymmetry (e.g., a random variation in the trait that is expected to be perfectly symmetrical) biased towards right for ear width and horn perimeter, and towards left for ear and horn length. Since the development of these structures-ears and horns-is under the control of the same set of genes, the fluctuating asymmetry could constitute a reflection of a normal condition.

The putative role of the habenula in animal migration.

BACKGROUND: When an addicted animal seeks a specific substance, it is based on the perception of internal and external cues that strongly motivate to pursue the acquisition of that compound. In essence, a similar process acts out when an animal leaves its present area to begin its circannual migration. This review article examines the existence of scientific evidence for possible relatedness of migration and addiction by influencing Dorsal Diencephalic Conduction System (DDCS) including the habenula. METHODS: For this review especially the databases of Pubmed and Embase were frequently and non-systematically searched. RESULTS: The mechanisms of bird migration have been thoroughly investigated. Especially the mechanism of the circannual biorhythm and its associated endocrine regulation has been well elucidated. A typical behavior called "Zugunruhe" marks the moment of leaving in migratory birds. The role of magnetoreception in navigation has also been clarified in recent years. However, how bird migration is regulated at the neuronal level in the forebrain is not well understood. Among mammals, marine mammals are most similar to birds. They use terrestrial magnetic field when navigating and often bridge long distances between breeding and foraging areas. Population migration is further often seen among the large hoofed mammals in different parts of the world. Importantly, learning processes and social interactions with conspecifics play a major role in these ungulates. Considering the evolutionary development of the forebrain in vertebrates, it can be postulated that the DDCS plays a central role in regulating the readiness and intensity of essential (emotional) behaviors. There is manifold evidence that this DDCS plays an important role in relapse to abuse after prolonged periods of abstinence from addictive behavior. It is also possible that the DDCS plays a role in navigation. CONCLUSIONS: The role of the DDCS in the neurobiological regulation of bird migration has hardly been investigated. The involvement of this system in relapse to addiction in mammals might suggest to change this. It is recommended that particularly during "Zugunruhe" the role of neuronal regulation via the DDCS will be further investigated.

Bite Me: Bark Stripping Showed Negligible Effect on Volume Growth of Norway Spruce in Latvia.

Over the past few decades, increasing populations of cervid species in the Baltic region have reduced the quality and vitality of cultivated Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands. This study evaluated the effect of bark stripping on the volume growth of spruce trees in Latvia. Data collection took place in two forest stands. In each stand, 20 Norway spruce trees were sampled, 10 with visible bark damage scars and 10 control trees. Stem discs were collected from control trees at specified heights (0 m, 0.5 m, 1 m, 1.3 m, and 2 m, and then at one-metre intervals up to the top) and from damaged trees at additional specific points relative to the damage. Each disc was sanded and scanned; tree ring widths were measured in 16 radial directions using WinDendro 2012a software. Annual volume growth reconstruction was performed for each tree. Changes in relative volume growth were analysed in interaction with scar parameters, tree type (damaged/control), and pre-damage volume using linear regression models. The significance of parameter interactions was assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means (EMMs) were conducted using Tukey's HSD post hoc test. No significant effect of bark stripping on the total stem volume increment was detected. However, the length of bark stripping scars had a significant impact on relative volume growth in the lower parts of the stems. These findings underscore the importance of further research examining a broader spectrum of cervid damage intensity and the effects of repeated damage on tree survival and growth.

High toxinogenic potential of Staphylococcus aureus from wild ungulates in Brandenburg, Germany with a low level of antibiotic resistance.

Introduction: Data regarding the occurrence and virulence of Staphylococcus (S.) aureus in wild living animals is rare. However, S. aureus may carry a multitude of virulence factors and express resistance to several antimicrobial substances. Handling game meat may thus lead to serious infections or food poisoning. The aim of this study was to provide insights into the occurrence and characteristics of S. aureus in wild ungulates from Brandenburg, Germany. Methods: Nasal swabs of externally healthy-looking wild boars, roe, fallow and red deer were collected in hunts during season 2021/2022 and analyzed for S. aureus by selective enrichment. Species were determined using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry and tested for phenotypic antimicrobial resistance. Whole-genome sequencing was conducted for genotyping, determination of virulence associated genes and analysis of phylogenetic relationships. Results: S. aureus were recovered from approximately 8% of nasal swabs. However, the strains were only obtained from the sampled wild ruminants. S. aureus isolates were associated with sequence types (ST) 1, ST30, ST133, ST425, ST582 and ST6238. Isolates of ST1 clustered closely together in the phylogenetic analysis. Genes encoding staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) or SE-like (SEl) were found in 14/17 isolates. In particular, a seh gene was present in 12/17 isolates. Moreover, two isolates harbored a multiplicity of genes encoding SE or SEl. In addition, the toxic shock syndrome toxin encoding tst gene was detected in one isolate. This isolate was resistant to penicillin and cefoxitin and accordingly harbored the blaZ gene. Discussion: Wild ungulates intended for human consumption may carry potentially virulent S. aureus. In one case, the close phylogenetic relationship of S. aureus isolates indicates a possible intraspecific spread within a common territory. However, for others, the origin or the spread pattern can only be inferred. Handling of animals or their carcasses might contribute to staphylococcal infections in humans. Moreover, food poisoning due to SE producing strains may occur, if recommended hygiene practices are not applied during processing of game meat.

Landscape-level habitat connectivity of large mammals in Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal.

The populations of many species of large mammals occur in small isolated and fragmented habitat patches in the human-dominated landscape. Maintenance of habitat connectivity in the fragmented landscapes is important for maintaining a healthy population of large mammal. This study evaluated the landscape patches and their linkages on two carnivores (leopard and Himalayan black bear) and seven prey species (northern red muntjac, chital, sambar, wild pig, Himalayan goral, rhesus macaque, and langur) between Chitwan National Park (CNP) and Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) by using the least-cost path (LCP) approach and the Linkage Mapper tool in ArcGIS. A total of 15 habitat patches (average area 26.67 ± 12.70 km2) were identified that had more than 50% of the total studied mammals. A weak relation among the habitat patches was found for chital and sambar (Cost-weighted distance [CWD]: Euclidean distance EucD >100), showed poor connectivity between the habitat patches, while ratio of CWD and EucD was low (i.e., low LCP) between majority of the patches for muntjac, wild pig and leopard hence had potential functional connectivity along the landscape. Similarly, low LCP between the habitat patches located in the mid-hills was observed for Himalayan goral and Himalayan black bear. Furthermore, the multi-species connectivity analysis identified the potential structural connectivity between the isolated populations and habitat patches. Therefore, these sites need to be considered connectivity hotspots and be prioritized for the conservation of large mammals in the landscape.

The Activity Patterns and Grouping Characteristics of the Remaining Goitered Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in an Isolated Habitat of Western China.

Wildlife activity patterns, which reveal the daily allocation of time and energy, are crucial for understanding survival pressures, adaptive strategies, and behavioral characteristics in different environments. Among ungulates, grouping behavior is a prevalent adaptive trait that reflects the population structure, mating systems, and life history strategies formed over long-term evolutionary processes. This study aimed to elucidate the daily activity patterns and grouping characteristics of the rare goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in the Helan Mountains of western China from 2022 to 2023 using camera trap monitoring. With a total of 3869 camera days of effective trapping, we recorded 442 independent detections of goitered gazelles. The results revealed the following: (1) Goitered gazelle is primarily active during the day, showing an activity pattern similar to crepuscular animals, with two activity peaks occurring after dawn and before dusk. (2) Daily activity patterns showed both seasonal and sex differences. In the warm season, morning activity peaks occurred earlier, and afternoon peaks occurred later compared to the cold season. The overlap in daily activity patterns between females and males in the warm season was lower than that in the cold season, and this trend persisted throughout the year. (3) The number of times different types of groups were observed varied significantly, with single males and single females accounting for a larger proportion of all observed groups. There was no significant difference in group size across seasons, with groups typically consisting of 1-2 individuals. Our study provides detailed insights into the temporal ecology and population structure of goitered gazelles in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. This information will guide the identification of future conservation priorities and the development of management plans for the reserve.

Effects of Human Harvesting, Residences, and Forage Abundance on Deer Spatial Distribution.

It has been known that harvesting by humans strongly influences individual within-home range habitat selection of many deer species; however, little is known about the effect of harvesting on coarse-scale habitat selection (i.e., spatial distribution). We examined the summer spatial distribution of sika deer Cervus nippon in relation to human harvesting and other factors, such as human residences, forage abundance, and cover, using pellet group counts at Mount Fuji, central Japan, in 2018. In the study area, harvesting is conducted at medium elevation areas throughout the year, but not at high or low elevation areas where access is difficult or harvesting is prohibited. Spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to non-harvesting areas and far from residential areas, suggesting that they avoid riskier spaces by establishing a landscape of fear. High-quality food resources (deciduous broad-leaved trees and forbs) were more abundant in harvesting areas than in non-harvesting areas, suggesting that foraging pressure by deer reduce them. However, there were no differences in abundances of more fibrous dwarf bamboo between harvesting and non-harvesting areas, and spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to higher dwarf bamboo abundance areas, suggesting that the dwarf bamboo is an alternative food resource in non-harvesting areas where supplies of high-quality food were limited. Our results suggest that human harvesting pressure and residences shifted the spatial distribution of deer from the montane forests to subalpine/alpine zones, which may increase damage to vulnerable ecosystems due to severe foraging pressure.

Epidemiological factors conditioning sarcoptic mange spreading in wild boar (Sus scrofa).

Sarcoptic mange is a widely distributed disease, with numerous potential hosts among domestic and wild animals. Nowadays it is considered a neglected re-emergent infection in humans. As a difference with domestic pigs, and even with several clinical cases reported in some European countries, it seems that Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) have a low susceptibility to clinical mange. However, because of a case of confirmed transmission from Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) to wild boar in the province of Tarragona, we planned a large-scale ELISA survey in the neighboring Valencian Community (SE Spain). We compared 419 wild boar sera from different management systems (fenced vs. open game estates), different ages (piglets, juveniles, and adults), with different behaviour (gregarious females of all ages and male piglets vs. solitary juveniles and adult males), from areas with different wild boar densities, different wild ruminant densities and different sarcoptic mange epidemiologic situations. The whole prevalence of antibodies against sarcoptic mange in the tested wild boars was 10.5%. No significant differences were found when comparing fenced and free ranging wild boars, males and females, gregarious vs. solitary individuals or among different ages. However, wild boar density was a relevant factor. In areas with a hunting bag of <1 wild boar/km2, considered as a low density of suids, the seroprevalence was 2.94%, but rose to 11.52% in high density districts, constituting a significant difference (p = 0.037). Low wild boar populations would act as a protective factor (OR 0.233; p = 0.049) against coming into contact with the mite. The wild ruminant densities or their sarcoptic mange status did not show any effect on wild boars seroprevalence against this disease. These results reinforce the suggested host-taxon Sarcoptes scabiei specificity and the independence of host-species foci.

Fecal thyroid hormone metabolites in wild ungulates: a mini-review.

This review aims to analyse the fluctuations of fecal thyroid hormone metabolites (FTMs) related to environmental and individual variables in different species of wild ungulates and provide a collection of assay methods. The great advantage of fecal sampling is being completely non-invasive. A systemic search was conducted from 2019 to 2024, using data sources PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the World Wide Web, and ten studies were found on this topic. Three studies used the radioimmunoassay method for FTMs analysis, while the others used a less expensive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Most of these papers validated the method for the species-specific matrix. Related to the studied variables, some authors analysed FTM fluctuations only concerning individual variables, and others in response to both. Temperature and fecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs) were the most studied environmental and individual variables, respectively. Since FTMs are an integrative measure of plasma thyroid hormones, the information obtained from a non-invasive-assay method regarding wild ungulate physiology is becoming of great interest to the scientific community.

Evidence of object permanence, short-term spatial memory, causality, understanding of object properties and gravity across five different ungulate species.

In their natural environment, animals face a variety of ecological and social challenges, which might be linked to the emergence of different cognitive skills. To assess inter-specific variation in cognitive skills, we used ungulates as a study model, testing a total of 26 captive individuals across 5 different species (i.e., dwarf goats, Capra aegagrus hircus, llamas, Lama glama, guanacos, Lama guanicoe, zebras, Equus grevyi, and rhinos, Diceros bicornis michaeli). Across species, we used the same well-established experimental procedures to test individuals' performance in naïve physics tasks, i.e. object permanence, short-term spatial memory, causality, understanding of object properties, and gravity. Our results revealed that study subjects showed object permanence, were able to remember the position of hidden food after up to 60 s, and inferred the position of hidden food from the sound produced or not produced when shaking containers. Moreover, they showed an understanding of basic object properties, being able to locate objects hidden behind occluders based on their size and inclination, and could reliably follow the trajectory of falling objects across different conditions. Finally, inter-specific differences were limited to the understanding of object properties, and suggest that domesticated species as goats might perform better than non-domesticated ones in tasks requiring these skills. These results provide new information on the cognitive skills of a still understudied taxon and confirm ungulates as a promising taxon for the comparative study of cognitive evolution.

A First Look at the Relationship Between Large Herbivore-Induced Landscape Modifications and Ixodes ricinus Tick Abundance in Rewilding Sites.

Background: While the influence of landscape and microclimatic conditions on tick populations is well-documented, there remains a gap in more specific data regarding their relationship to rewilding efforts with large herbivore activity. Objective: This pilot study, spanning from 2019 to 2021, explores the effects of naturalistic grazing by large semi-wild ungulates on tick abundance in the Milovice Reserve, Czechia. Methods: Tick collection was observed using flagging techniques at two distinct sites of rewilding area: one grazed, actively utilized by animals involved in the rewilding project, and one ungrazed, left fallow in neighboring areas utilized only by wild animals. Transects, each measuring 150 m in length and 5 m in width (750 m2), were established at these two sampling locations from March to September between 2019 and 2021. To minimize potential bias resulting from tick movement, a 300 m buffer zone separated the two sites. Data analysis employed a generalized estimating equations (GEE) model with negative binomial regression. The study assessed potential variations in tick abundance between selected transects, considering factors such as plant cover seasonality, temperature, and humidity. Results: During the collection periods, we gathered 586 live ticks, with 20% found in grazed areas and 80% in ungrazed areas. Notably, tick abundance was significantly higher in ungrazed areas. Peaks in tick abundance occurred in both grazed and ungrazed areas during spring, particularly in April. However, tick numbers declined more rapidly in grazed areas. Microclimatic variables like temperature and humidity did not significantly impact tick abundance compared to landscape management and seasonal factors. Conclusion: Rewilding efforts, particularly natural grazing by large ungulates, influence tick abundance and distribution. This study provides empirical data on tick ecology in rewilded areas, highlighting the importance of landscape management and environmental factors in tick management and conservation. Trophic rewilding plays a crucial role in shaping ecosystems and tick population dynamics in transformed landscapes.

Targeted recreational hunting can reduce animal-vehicle collisions and generate substantial revenue for wildlife management agencies.

Reduction of conflicts arising from human-wildlife interactions is necessary for coexistence. Collisions between animals and automobiles cost the world's economy billions of dollars, and wildlife management agencies often are responsible for reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions. But wildlife agencies have few proven options for reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions that are effective and financially feasible at large spatiotemporal scales germane to management. Recreational hunting by humans is a primary population management tool available for use with abundant wild ungulates that often collide with automobiles. Therefore, we tested how well policies designed to increase human hunting of deer (longer hunting seasons and increased harvest limits) reduced collisions between white-tailed deer and automobiles along 618 km of high-risk roadways in Indiana, USA. We used a 20-y dataset that compiled >300,000 deer-vehicle collisions. Targeted recreational hunting decreased deer-vehicle collisions by 21.12 % and saved society up to $653,756 (95 % CIs = $286,063-$1,154,118) in economic damages from 2018 to 2022. Potential savings was up to $1,265,694 (95 % CIs = $579,108-$2,402,813) during the same 5-y span if relaxed hunting regulations occurred along all high-risk roadways. Moreover, license sales from targeted hunting generated $206,268 in revenue for wildlife management. Targeted hunting is likely effective in other systems where ungulate-vehicle collisions are prevalent, as behavioral changes in response to human hunting has been documented in many ungulate species across several continents. Our methods are attractive for management agencies with limited funds, as relaxed hunting regulations are relatively inexpensive to implement and may generate substantial additional revenue.

Programmed Grooming after 30 Years of Study: A Review of Evidence and Future Prospects.

In 1992, an evolutionary model for the endogenous regulation of parasite-defense grooming was first proposed for African antelope by Ben and Lynette Hart. Known as the programmed grooming model, it hypothesized that a central control mechanism periodically evokes grooming so as to remove ectoparasites before they blood feed. The programmed grooming model contrasts with a stimulus-driven mechanism, in which grooming is stimulated by direct peripheral irritation from ectoparasite bites. In the 30+ years since the seminal 1992 paper, 26 studies have provided robust support for the programmed grooming model in ungulate hosts and ticks. In addition, multiple studies from unaffiliated investigators have evaluated the predictions of the model in different host systems (including rodents and primates) and in a variety of other ectoparasites (fleas, lice, and keds). I conducted a tricennial review of these studies to assess the current evidence and arrived at the following three conclusions: (1) tests of the programmed grooming predictions should use a similar methodology to the well-established protocol, so that the results are comparable and can be properly assessed; (2) the predictions used to test the model should be tailored to the biology of the host taxa under investigation; and (3) the predictions should likewise be tailored to the biology of the ectoparasites involved, bearing in mind that grooming has varying degrees of effectiveness, depending on the parasite. Further research is warranted to enhance our understanding of the role of grooming in maintaining the health of wild animals in the face of parasite attacks.

Seeds in the guts: can seed traits explain seed survival after being digested by wild ungulates?

Plants inhabiting open landscapes are often dispersed by ungulates and are expected to be adapted to this type of dispersal through their seed traits. To find which traits help seeds survive the passage through digestion of wild ungulates, we conducted a comprehensive feeding experiment with almost forty species of plants and three species of ungulates. We fed specified numbers of seeds to the animals, collected the dung, and germinated the dung content. We explored whether seed morphological traits and seed nutrient contents are good predictors of seed survival after passage through the ungulate digestive system. We also tested how the seed survival differed after the passage through different ungulate species. To find answers, we used GLMM with beta-binomial distribution and animal and plant species as random factor, respectively. We found that species survival and germination success were negatively correlated to seed elongation and the thickness of the seed coat. Even though phylogenetically correct GLMM did not yield significant results, when we tested species from commonly represented families, separately (legumes and grasses compared to all other species) different traits had statistically significant effects. In the case of seed elongation, the effect changed direction from negative to positive when legumes and grasses were left out. Our results suggest that seed traits enabling species survival after passage through the digestive tract are strongly phylogenetically conserved and different groups of plants evolved different ways of adapting to grazing pressure and utilize it for dispersal.

Insights from a 31-year study demonstrate an inverse correlation between recreational activities and red deer fecundity, with bodyweight as a mediator.

Human activity is omnipresent in our landscapes. Animals can perceive risk from humans similar to predation risk, which could affect their fitness. We assessed the influence of the relative intensity of recreational activities on the bodyweight and pregnancy rates of red deer (Cervus elaphus) between 1985 and 2015. We hypothesized that stress, as a result of recreational activities, affects the pregnancy rates of red deer directly and indirectly via a reduction in bodyweight. Furthermore, we expected non-motorized recreational activities to have a larger negative effect on both bodyweight and fecundity, compared to motorized recreational activities. The intensity of recreational activities was recorded through visual observations. We obtained pregnancy data from female red deer that were shot during the regular hunting season. Additionally, age and bodyweight were determined through a post-mortem examination. We used two Generalized-Linear-Mixed Models (GLMM) to test the effect of different types of recreation on (1) pregnancy rates and (2) bodyweight of red deer. Recreation had a direct negative correlation with the fecundity of red deer, with bodyweight, as a mediator as expected. Besides, we found a negative effect of non-motorized recreation on fecundity and bodyweight and no significant effect of motorized recreation. Our results support the concept of humans as an important stressor affecting wild animal populations at a population level and plead to regulate recreational activities in protected areas that are sensitive. The fear humans induce in large-bodied herbivores and its consequences for fitness may have strong implications for animal populations.