Do habitat fragmentation and degradation influence the strength of fine-scale spatial genetic structure in plants? A global meta-analysis.

As primarily sessile organisms, plants often show a non-random spatial distribution of genotypes over distance. This process known as fine-scale spatial genetic structure (FSGS) has been suggested through systematic reviews to depend on life form, mating system, and pollen and seed dispersal vectors, while there is no consensus on its behaviour due to external factors, such as anthropogenic habitat changes. By conducting a systematic review and global meta-analysis of empirical FSGS studies, we aimed to evaluate how anthropogenic habitat fragmentation and degradation influence the strength of FSGS in plant populations by means of the Sp statistic. Moreover, we tested how pollination and seed dispersal vectors contribute to the variation of the Sp statistic. We retrieved 243 FSGS studies from 1960 to 2020 of which only 65 were informative for the systematic review. Most empirical studies comprised outcrossers (84%) and trees (67%), with few herbs (23%) and scarce annual species (2%). In weighted meta-analyses for 116 plant populations (31 studies), we did not detect significant effects in the magnitude of effect sizes for the Sp statistic among undisturbed, degraded and fragmented habitats. Results showed significant effects for seed dispersal vectors, but not for pollination. Overall, we observed high variation among the effect sizes (not related to the goodness-of-fit of mixed models) of habitat status, pollination and seed dispersal categories, which precludes identifying biological trends on the Sp statistic. More empirical studies are needed that contrast multiple plant populations in disturbed versus undisturbed habitats, and by increasing the taxonomic groups, such as herbs and annual plants.

Avian Assemblages in Forest Fragments do not Sum to the Expected Regional Community in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.

While bird diversity in the Atlantic Forest can be considered well-known, how the communities have been affected by deforestation and habitat fragmentation is not. We studied birds in 10 forest fragments of distinct sizes (all originally within the Atlantic Forest) in southern Bahia. In 5,391 bird encounters, we found 251 species, with 46 endemics and eight considered globally vulnerable or endangered. We also compiled a list of the 380 species that should comprise the expected regional assemblage, and found that only 66% of these species were present in all the fragments combined. Only 9% of all observed species were found in all fragments. The largest fragment (700 ha) had the greatest number of endemic species (40), and seven threatened species. All fragments had some conservation-important species (some were found in one or a few fragments), but no fragment included them all. Fragments shared 10% of endemic species, but overall, the contingent of endemics was unique in each fragment. Finally, most functional traits of bird assemblages decreased with increasing fragment size. Neither species richness nor similarity correlated with fragment size or distance between fragments, and unknown, non-random factors probably influence the likelihood of species survival in each fragment. Thus, to ensure the persistence of threatened species, as well as maintain the most common species, conservation management decisions should include all fragments together because no single fragment is most representative of the local community.

Effectiveness of aerial wildlife crossings: Do wildlife use rope bridges more than hazardous structures to cross roads? / Eficacia de los pasos aéreos sobre carretera: ¿Cruza la fauna más por puentes de cuerda que por otras estructuras peligrosas?

Abstract Introduction: Although wildlife crossing structures have proven successful at reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions and linking fragmented habitat, their ability to prevent electrocutions of arboreal wildlife has not been closely examined. Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of aerial rope bridges in restoring habitat connectivity for arboreal species in Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, while preventing electrocutions by determining 1) what species are using the rope bridges and 2) whether wildlife prefer to use rope bridges instead of other hazardous structures that cross the roads (such as telephone cables, which are often in close proximity to electric wires). Methods: From January to May 2016, nine rope bridges along the highly-trafficked main road that extends from Quepos to Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, were monitored using camera traps, and ten rope bridges were observed directly along a paved side road off the main road. Results: A total of 11 species were seen using the bridges, and 1 540 crossings were witnessed via camera traps and observations (1 234 via camera traps, 306 during observations). Results from a paired t-test showed no significant difference in the average number of individuals crossing the road via rope bridges versus telephone cables (t(8) = 1.027, P = 0.334). Conclusions: Rope bridges are used by a variety of arboreal wildlife species with a high degree of frequency; however, due to the equally high usage of telephone cables by arboreal wildlife, they are insufficient to prevent wildlife electrocutions on their own. Rope bridges should be installed in tandem with other methods to prevent electrocutions, such as insulating electric wires, to facilitate the safe passage of wildlife over roads.

Resumen Introducción: Aunque los pasos de fauna han demostrado ser exitosos para reducir las colisiones entre vehículos y vida silvestre y vincular el hábitat fragmentado, su capacidad para prevenir electrocuciones de la vida silvestre arbórea no se ha examinado a fondo. Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de los puentes aéreos de cuerdas para restaurar la conectividad del hábitat de las especies arbóreas en Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica y al mismo tiempo prevenir las electrocuciones al determinar 1) qué especies están usando los puentes de cuerda y 2) si la vida silvestre prefiere usar puentes de cuerda en lugar de otras estructuras peligrosas que cruzan las carreteras (como cables telefónicos, que frecuentemente están muy cerca de cables eléctricos). Métodos: De enero a mayo de 2016, se monitorearon nueve puentes de cuerda a lo largo de la carretera principal altamente transitada que se extiende desde Quepos a Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, utilizando cámaras trampa y la observación directa en diez puentes de cuerda a lo largo de una carretera pavimentada más pequeña fuera de la carretera principal. Resultados: Se observaron un total de 11 especies utilizando los puentes y se presenciaron 1 540 cruces mediante cámaras trampa y observaciones (1 234 mediante cámaras trampa, 306 durante las observaciones). Los resultados de una prueba t pareada no mostraron diferencias significativas en el número promedio de individuos que cruzan la carretera a través de puentes de cuerda versus cables telefónicos, t (8) = 1.027, P = 0.334. Conclusiones: Los puentes de cuerdas son utilizados por una variedad de especies de vida silvestre arbóreas con un alto grado de frecuencia; sin embargo, debido al uso igualmente elevado de cables telefónicos por parte de la vida silvestre arbórea, se considera que son insuficientes para prevenir las electrocuciones de la vida silvestre por sí solas. Los puentes de cuerda deben instalarse junto con otros métodos para evitar electrocuciones, como cables eléctricos aislados, para facilitar el paso seguro de la vida silvestre por las carreteras.

Distribution of gall-inducing arthropods in areas of deciduous seasonal forest of Parque da Sapucaia (Montes Claros, MG, Brazil): effects of anthropization, vegetation structure and seasonality

In the present study, we inventoried gall-inducing arthropod species and evaluated the effects of habitat anthropization, vegetation structure and seasonality on this group in areas of deciduous seasonal forest of Parque da Sapucaia, Montes Claros, MG, Brazil. The gall-inducing fauna was sampled between April 2017 and February 2018 from 20 plots distributed in anthropized and preserved habitats. A total of 29 morphospecies of gall-inducing arthropods and 21 species of host plants were recorded. The Fabaceae plant family had the highest number of gall morphospecies (n = 10), while the Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) insect family induced the most galls (41.3%). Mean gall richness did not differ between preserved and anthropized plots, but was negatively affected by mean vegetation height and density. The total number of gall morphospecies recorded during each sampling did not differ between dry and rainy seasons, but the mean richness of galls per plot was higher in the rainy season. In conclusion, natural factors, such as vegetation structure and seasonality, were more important for the distribution of gall-inducing species than anthropic factors, such as vegetation anthropization level.(AU)

Distribution of gall-inducing arthropods in areas of deciduous seasonal forest of Parque da Sapucaia (Montes Claros, MG, Brazil): effects of anthropization, vegetation structure and seasonality

In the present study, we inventoried gall-inducing arthropod species and evaluated the effects of habitat anthropization, vegetation structure and seasonality on this group in areas of deciduous seasonal forest of Parque da Sapucaia, Montes Claros, MG, Brazil. The gall-inducing fauna was sampled between April 2017 and February 2018 from 20 plots distributed in anthropized and preserved habitats. A total of 29 morphospecies of gall-inducing arthropods and 21 species of host plants were recorded. The Fabaceae plant family had the highest number of gall morphospecies (n = 10), while the Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) insect family induced the most galls (41.3%). Mean gall richness did not differ between preserved and anthropized plots, but was negatively affected by mean vegetation height and density. The total number of gall morphospecies recorded during each sampling did not differ between dry and rainy seasons, but the mean richness of galls per plot was higher in the rainy season. In conclusion, natural factors, such as vegetation structure and seasonality, were more important for the distribution of gall-inducing species than anthropic factors, such as vegetation anthropization level.

Antibodies and Molecular Detection of Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum in Samples of Free-Ranging Marmosets (Primates: Callitrichidae: Callithrix spp.) in an Area of Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis in Southeastern Brazil.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne parasitic protozoan infection that affects mammals and involves a complex epidemiology. Although dogs are considered the main reservoir in zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (VL), the possible presence of other mammalian species acting as reservoirs has been associated as a possible cause of lack of success in the control of human VL in many endemic areas. The knowledge about natural infections of some species is still scarce, such as nonhuman primates (NHP), especially from the genus Callithrix (marmosets). We investigated the infection by Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum, the agent of VL in the Americas, in 26 marmosets captured monthly, from April 2014 to March 2015, in an environmentally protected area (EPA) in Southeastern Brazil. The EPA has undergone significant environmental changes and has a transmission focus of canine VL since 2009. Serology was performed through the direct agglutination test, which detected low antibody titers in seven marmosets (7/26; 26.9%, 95% confidence interval 9.9-44.0), being five Callithrix penicillata (black-tufted-ear marmoset) and two Callithrix jacchus (white-tufted-ear marmoset). The presence of the DNA of Leishmania was investigated in blood and skin samples by PCR and genetic sequencing. This is the first report of the detection of L. (L.) infantum in the skin of a marmoset, which was verified in a sample from one C. penicillata. The results demonstrate the natural infection of marmosets by L. (L.) infantum and may suggest the participation of these animals as hosts in the parasite's transmission cycle in the EPA. However, more comprehensive studies are needed to elucidate their role on the VL epidemiology in this area and also in different endemic areas, especially because these NHP are increasingly in contact with humans and domestic animals, particularly due to environmental changes.

A new pathogen spillover from domestic to wild animals: Plasmodium juxtanucleare infects free-living passerines in Brazil.

Habitat modification may facilitate the emergence of novel pathogens, and the expansion of agricultural frontiers make domestic animals important sources of pathogen spillover to wild animals. We demonstrate for the first time that Plasmodium juxtanucleare, a widespread parasite from domestic chickens, naturally infects free-living passerines. We sampled 68 wild birds within and at the border of conservation units in central Brazil composed by Cerrado, a highly threatened biome. Seven out of 10 passerines captured in the limits of a protected area with a small farm were infected by P. juxtanucleare as was confirmed by sequencing a fragment of the parasite's cytochrome b. Blood smears from these positive passerines presented trophozoites, meronts and gametocytes compatible with P. juxtanucleare, meaning these birds are competent hosts for this parasite. After these intriguing results, we sampled 30 backyard chickens managed at the area where P. juxtanucleare-infected passerines were captured, revealing one chicken infected by the same parasite lineage. We sequenced the almost complete mitochondrial genome from all positive passerines, revealing that Brazilian and Asian parasites are closely related. P. juxtanucleare can be lethal to non-domestic hosts under captive and rehabilitation conditions, suggesting that this novel spillover may pose a real threat to wild birds.

Searching for putative avian malaria vectors in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Haemosporidian parasites of the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus can have detrimental effects on individual birds and populations. Despite recent investigations into the distribution and richness of these parasites and their vertebrate hosts, little is known about their dipteran vectors. The Neotropics has the highest diversity of mosquitoes in the world, but few studies have tried to identify vectors in this area, hampering the understanding of the ecology of avian malaria in the highly diverse Neotropical environments. METHODS: Shannon traps and active collection were used to capture 27,110 mosquitoes in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in southeastern Brazil, a highly endangered ecosystem. RESULTS: We screened 17,619 mosquito abdomens from 12 different species and several unidentified specimens of Culex, grouped into 1,913 pools, for the presence of haemosporidians. Two pools (out of 459) of the mosquito Mansonia titillans and one pool (out of 29) of Mansonia pseudotitillans were positive for Plasmodium parasites, with the detection of a new parasite lineage in the former species. Detected Plasmodium lineages were distributed in three different clades within the phylogenetic tree revealing that Mansonia mosquitoes are potential vectors of genetically distant parasites. Two pools of Culex spp. (out of 43) were positive for Plasmodium gallinaceum and closely related lineages. We found a higher abundance of these putative vectors in pasture areas, but they were also distributed in areas at intermediate and late successional stages. One pool of the mosquito Psorophora discrucians (out of 173) was positive for Haemoproteus. CONCLUSIONS: The occurrence of different Plasmodium lineages in Mansonia mosquitoes indicates that this genus encompasses potential vectors of avian malaria parasites in Brazil, even though we did not find positive thoraces among the samples tested. Additional evidence is required to assign the role of Mansonia mosquitoes in avian malaria transmission and further studies will add information about evolutionary and ecological aspects of avian haemosporidia and untangle the diversity of their vectors in Brazil.

Rapid human-induced divergence of life-history strategies in Bahamian livebearing fishes (family Poeciliidae).

Human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC) can have dramatic impacts on ecosystems, leading to rapid trait changes in some organisms and extinction in others. Such changes in traits signify that human actions can lead to cases of increased phenotypic diversity and consequently can strongly impact population-, community- and ecosystem-level dynamics. Here, we examine whether the ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation have led to changes in the life histories of three native species of mosquitofish (Gambusia spp.) inhabiting tidal creeks on six different Bahamian islands. We address two important questions: (i) How predictable and parallel are life-history changes in response to HIREC across islands and species, and (ii) what is the relative importance of shared (i.e. parallel) responses to fragmentation, differences between species or islands and species- or island-specific responses to fragmentation? Phenotypic differences between fragmentation regimes were as great or greater than differences between species or islands. While some adult life histories (lean weight and fat content) showed strong, shared responses to fragmentation, offspring-related life histories (embryo fat and fecundity) exhibited idiosyncratic, island-specific responses. While shared responses to fragmentation appeared largely driven by a reduction in piscivorous fish density, increased conspecific density and changes in salinity, we found some evidence that among-population variation in male reproductive investment and embryo fat content may have arisen via variation in conspecific density. Our results suggest that phenotypic responses to HIREC can be complex, with the predictability of response varying across traits. We therefore emphasize the need for more theoretical and empirical work to better understand the predictability of phenotypic responses to human-induced disturbances.

Effect of deforestation and introduction of exotic grasses as livestock forage on the population dynamics of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) in northern Argentina.

The effect of deforestation and the introduction of exotic grasses on the population dynamics of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus in northern Argentina was analysed. Biological parameters that were measured included proportion of females ovipositing, pre-oviposition period, incubation period of eggs, proportion of egg clusters hatching, larval longevity and total non-parasitic period. No significant differences were observed in proportion of females ovipositing and in pre-oviposition period between forested and grassland areas. Regarding the other parameters, in the majority of the temporal series there were no significant differences. In the cases where differences with statistical significance were detected, they were not unidirectional. The replacement of native forest by grasses can potentially increase tick abundance not by the modification of microclimatic conditions, but by increasing the tick-host encounter rate due to a higher cattle density. The hypothesis that deforestation and introduction of exotic grasses affects the non-parasitic phase of R. microplus in northern Argentina was not supported.

Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards from the APM Manso, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso State, Brazil / Evidências histológicas da atividade reprodutiva em lagartos da região da APM Manso, Chapada dos Guimarães, Estado do Mato Grosso, Brasil

The construction of dams causes major impacts on fauna by changing or eliminating irreversibly their habitats. The resulting changes lead to deep potential modifications on reproductive biology and population structure of lizards, snakes and amphisbaenas. The reservoir in the Multiple Use Area of Manso (APM-Manso) is located near to Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, in Mato Grosso State. We analyzed comparatively the male gonads of Anolis meridionalis, Colobosaura modesta, Cercosaura ocellata, Cnemidophorus ocellifer, Hoplocercus spinosus, Bachia bresslaui, Mabuya frenata, Micrablepharus atticolus and Tropidurus oreadicus, from APM-Manso, aiming to verify possible changes in the reproductive success according to environmental changes. Before the impoundment A. meridionalis, Colobosaura modesta, Cercosaura ocellata, M. atticolus and T. oreadicus showed up reproductive. However, during the impoundment period they presented changes in seminiferous tubules, evidenced by the absence of spermatids and spermatozoids. B. bresslaui and M. frenata had no differences in the seminiferous tubules before and after the impoundment, being reproductive in both moments. The damming and the formation of the lake of Manso reservoir may have interfered on the reproduction of some lizards species, especially if the reproductive cycle is regulated by the rainfall of the habitat.

A construção de barragens tem ocasionado grandes impactos sobre a fauna ao alterar ou eliminar seus habitats de forma irreversível. Alterações decorrentes exercem profundas modificações potenciais na biologia reprodutiva e na estrutura populacional de lagartos, serpentes e anfisbenas. O reservatório da Área de Aproveitamento Múltiplo de Manso (APM-Manso) localiza-se próximo ao Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães, em Mato Grosso. Foram analisadas comparativamente as gônadas masculinas de Anolis meridionalis, Colobosaura modesta, Cercosaura ocellata, Cnemidophorus ocellifer, Hoplocercus spinosus, Bachia bresslaui, Mabuya frenata, Micrablepharus atticolus e Tropidurus oreadicus, da APM-Manso com o objetivo de verificar se houve alterações no sucesso reprodutivo das mesmas de acordo com as modificações ocorridas no ambiente. Antes do represamento A. meridionalis, Colobosaura modesta, Cercosaura ocellata, M. atticolus e T. oreadicus apresentavam-se reprodutivas. No entanto, durante o período de represamento apresentaram alterações nos túbulos seminíferos evidenciadas pela ausência de espermátides e espermatozóides. B. bresslaui e M. frenata não apresentaram diferenças em seus túbulos seminíferos antes ou depois do represamento, estando reprodutivas em ambos os momentos. O represamento e a formação do lago do Manso pode ter interferido na reprodução de algumas espécies de lagartos, principalmente se o ciclo reprodutivo for regulado a partir da pluviosidade do habitat.

Ant community richness and composition across a gradient from Eucalyptus plantations to secondary Atlantic Forest / Riqueza e composição das comunidades de formigas em um gradiente de plantio de Eucalyptus a Mata Atlântica secundária

Secondary forests and exotic tree plantations are expanding across tropical landscapes. However, our current understanding of the value of these human-dominated forest landscapes for invertebrate biodiversity conservation is still very poor. In this paper, we use the leaf-litter ant fauna to assess invertebrate diversity in one commercially managed Eucalyptus plantation (four years old), two abandoned plantations of different regeneration ages (16 and 31 years), and one neighboring secondary Atlantic Forest in Southeastern Brazil. There was a clear gradient in species richness from the secondary forest to the managed Eucalyptus plantation; richness and diversity peaked in secondary forest and in the older regenerating Eucalyptus plantation. Significantly more species were recorded in secondary forest samples than in Eucalyptus plantations, but Eucalyptus plantations had a similar level of richness. Furthermore, a non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis revealed clear differences in species composition between the younger managed Eucalyptus plantation (understory absent) and habitats with sub-developed or developed understory. Eucalyptus plantations were characterized by an assemblage of widespread, generalist species very different from those known to occur in core forest habitats of southeastern Brazil. Our results indicate that while older regenerating Eucalyptus plantations can provide habitat to facilitate the persistence of generalist ant species, it is unlikely to conserve most of the primary forest species, such as specialized predators, Dacetini predators, and nomadic species.

As florestas secundárias e plantações de espécies exóticas estão se expandindo nas paisagens tropicais. No entanto, nossa compreensão sobre o valor destas florestas para a conservação da biodiversidade de invertebrados ainda é incipiente. Neste trabalho, usamos a fauna de formigas de serapilheira para avaliar a diversidade desses insetos entre três florestas de Eucalyptus, sendo uma comercial (quatro anos de idade) e duas abandonadas em diferentes idades de regeneração (16 e 31 anos) e uma área de Mata Atlântica secundária. A riqueza total foi mais alta na floresta secundária e nos plantios de Eucalyptus abandonados há mais tempo. A densidade de espécies na floresta secundária foi significativamente maior quando comparado as plantações de Eucalyptus, mas não difere entre eucaliptais; análise de ordenação revelou diferenças na composição de espécies entre as plantações de Eucalyptus com subbosque ausente e com subbosque desenvolvido ou em desenvolvimento. Ainda, foi constatada uma sobreposição acentuada entre amostras de serapilheira das florestas de eucaliptos abandonadas há mais tempo e a floresta secundária. Em geral, plantações de eucalipto foram caracterizadas pela presença de espécies generalistas e de ampla distribuição. Nossos resultados indicam que embora o subbosque de plantações de eucaliptos com maior idade de regeneração suporte um conjunto relativamente alto de espécies generalistas de formigas, é improvável que eucaliptais conservem a maioria das espécies de florestas primárias, especialmente predadores especializados, Dacetini e espécies nômades.

A comparison of the leaf-litter ant fauna in a secondary atlantic forest with an adjacent pine plantation in southeastern Brazil / Comparação da fauna de formigas de serapilheira entre área de floresta atlântica secundária e plantação adjacente de pinus no sudeste do Brasil

We investigated the influence of Pinus afforestation on the structure of leaf-litter ant communities in the southeastern Brazilian Atlantic Forest, studying an old secondary forest and a nearly 30 year-old never managed Pinus elliottii reforested area. A total of 12,826 individual ants distributed among 95 species and 32 genera were obtained from 50 1 m² samples/ habitat. Of these, 60 species were recorded in the pine plantation and 82 in the area of Atlantic forest; almost 50 percent of the species found in the secondary forest area were also present in the pine plantation. The number of species per sample was significantly higher in the secondary forest than in the pine plantation. Forest-adapted taxa are the most responsible for ant species richness differences between areas, and the pine plantation is richer in species classified as soil or litter omnivorous-dominants. The specialized ant predators registered in the pine plantation, as seven Dacetini, two Basiceros, two Attini and two Discothyrea, belong to widely distributed species. The NMDS (non-metric multidimensional scaling) ordination also suggested strong differences in similarity among samples of the two areas. Furthermore, this analysis indicated higher sample heterogeneity in the secondary forest, with two clusters of species, while in the pine plantation the species belong to a single cluster. We applied the ant mosaic hypothesis to explain the distribution of the leaf-litter fauna and spatial autocorrelation tests among samples. We argue that the results are likely related to differences in quality and distribution of the leaf-litter between the pine plantation and the secondary area.

A influência do reflorestamento com Pinus na estrutura da fauna de formigas de serapilheira foi investigada, estudando uma floresta Atlântica secundária inalterada há 30 anos e uma área reflorestada com Pinus elliottii no Sudeste do Brasil. Em 50 amostras de 1 m² tomadas em cada área, foram coletados 12.826 indivíduos, distribuídos em 95 espécies e 32 gêneros de formigas. Foram identificadas 60 espécies na área reflorestada com Pinus e 82 espécies na área de floresta secundária; aproximadamente 50 por cento das espécies foram registradas nas duas áreas. A mediana do número de espécies por amostra foi maior na floresta secundária. Táxons com biologia especializada são responsáveis por grande parte das diferenças de composição de fauna, sendo a área de reflorestamento com Pinus mais rica em espécies onívoras e dominantes. Predadoras especializadas registradas na área de Pinus, como sete espécies de Dacetini, duas Basiceros, duas Attini e duas Discothyrea, têm ampla distribuição na Floresta Atlântica. A ordenação das amostras com o escalonamento multidimensional não-métrico (NMDS) indicou grande diferença na similaridade entre as amostras das áreas. Adicionalmente, essa análise sugere maior heterogeneidade na composição das amostras da floresta secundária, identificando dois agrupamentos de espécies, enquanto a área de Pinus apresenta um agrupamento apenas. Para investigar quais fatores podem explicar a heterogeneidade observada, testes de co-ocorrência e de autocorrelação espacial foram aplicados entre amostras de cada área. Nossa conclusão é que as diferenças observadas devem estar relacionadas com diferenças na qualidade e distribuição da serapilheira entre as áreas.