Manipulation of unfolded protein response by zoonotic vaccinia virus strains Guarani P1 and Passatempo.

The replicative success of vaccinia virus (VACV) depends on its ability to subvert host functions. Poxviruses multiplication and maturation are closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and its membranes. This organelle responds to disturbances caused by the accumulation of misfolded proteins, leading to processing of these proteins or even programmed cell death through the unfolded protein response (UPR). Several studies show that different viruses can activate UPR pathway components and negatively modulate others. Here, we investigate the effects of infections by zoonotic VACV strains from Brazil, Guarani P1 virus (GP1V) and Passatempo virus (PSTV), in the activation of UPR pathway sensors. We observed translocation of ATF6 to the nucleus as well as transcriptional increase after GP1V, PSTV, and reference strain Western Reserve (WR) infection. XBP1 processing appears to be negatively modulated after VACV infection; however, inhibition of the inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) kinase domain led to a reduction in plaque sizes for these viruses. The absence of PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) has an impact on the plaque phenotype of GP1V, PSTV viruses, as well as for the prototypical strain WR. These results indicate that the VACV manipulates the three arms of the UPR path differently to ensure replicative success.

Gene duplication, gene loss, and recombination events with variola virus shaped the complex evolutionary path of historical American horsepox-based smallpox vaccines.

IMPORTANCE: Modern smallpox vaccines, such as those used against mpox, are made from vaccinia viruses, but it is still unknown whether cowpox, horsepox, or vaccinia viruses were used in the early 20th century or earlier. The mystery began to be solved when the genomes of six historical smallpox vaccines used in the United States from 1850 to 1902 were determined. Our work analyzed in detail the genomes of these six historical vaccines, revealing a complex genomic structure. Historical vaccines are highly similar to horsepox in the core of their genomes, but some are closer to the structure of vaccinia virus at the ends of the genome. One of the vaccines is a recombinant virus with parts of variola virus recombined into its genome. Our data add valuable information for understanding the evolutionary path of current smallpox vaccines and the genetic makeup of the potentially extinct group of horsepox viruses.

Ultrastructural analysis of monkeypox virus replication in Vero cells.

In early May 2022, the first worldwide monkeypox virus (MPXV) outbreak was reported, with different clinical aspects from previously studied human monkeypox infections. Despite monkeypox medical importance, much of its biological aspects remain to be further investigated. In the present work, we evaluated ultrastructural aspects of MPXV asynchronous infections in Vero cells by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The viral strain was isolated from a male patient infected during the 2022 outbreak. TEM analysis showed: (i) adhered intracellular mature virus particles before entry of the host cell; (ii) a reorganization of the rough endoplasmic reticulum cisternae into the so-called "mini-nuclei" structure associated with genome replication; and (iii) noticeably different sites within the viral factory presenting granular or fibrillar aspects. We also observed viral crescents, different MPXV particle morphotypes, and cellular alterations induced by infection, such as changes in the cytoskeleton structure and multimembrane vesicles abundance. Taken together, to the best of our knowledge, these results revealed for the first-time ultrastructural aspects of different steps of the MPXV cycle.

In vitro susceptibility of eighteen clinical isolates of human monkeypox virus to tecovirimat

BACKGROUND In 2022, an outbreak of mpox that started in European countries spread worldwide through human-to-human transmission. Cases have been mostly mild, but severe clinical presentations have been reported. In these cases, tecovirimat has been the drug of choice to treat patients with aggravated disease. OBJECTIVES Here we investigated the tecovirimat susceptibility of 18 clinical isolates of monkeypox virus (MPXV) obtained from different regions of Brazil. METHODS Different concentrations of tecovirimat were added to cell monolayers infected with each MPXV isolate. After 72 hours, cells were fixed and stained for plaque visualization, counting, and measurement. The ortholog of F13L gene from each MPXV isolate was polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified, sequenced, and the predicted protein sequences were analyzed. FINDINGS The eighteen MPXV isolates generated plaques of different sizes. Although all isolates were highly sensitive to the drug, two showed different response curves and IC50 values. However, the target protein of tecovirimat, F13 (VP37), was 100% conserved in all MPXV isolates and therefore does not explain the difference in sensitivity. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our results support screening different MPXV isolates for tecovirimat susceptibility as an important tool to better use of the restricted number of tecovirimat doses available in low-income countries to treat patients with mpox.

Detection of Cetacean Poxvirus in Peruvian Common Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) Using a Pan-Poxvirus PCR.

Cetacean poxviruses (CePVs) cause 'tattoo' skin lesions in small and large cetaceans worldwide. Although the disease has been known for decades, genomic data for these poxviruses are very limited, with the exception of CePV-Tursiops aduncus, which was completely sequenced in 2020. Using a newly developed pan-pox real-time PCR system targeting a conserved nucleotide sequence located within the Monkeypox virus D6R gene, we rapidly detected the CePV genome in typical skin lesions collected from two Peruvian common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) by-caught off Peru in 1993. Phylogenetic analyses based on the sequencing of the DNA polymerase and DNA topoisomerase genes showed that the two viruses are very closely related to each other, although the dolphins they infected pertained to different ecotypes. The poxviruses described in this study belong to CePV-1, a heterogeneous clade that infects many species of dolphins (Delphinidae) and porpoises (Phocoenidae). Among this clade, the T. truncatus CePVs from Peru were more related to the viruses infecting Delphinidae than to those detected in Phocoenidae. This is the first time that CePVs were identified in free-ranging odontocetes from the Eastern Pacific, surprisingly in 30-year-old samples. These data further suggest a close and long-standing pathogen-host co-evolution, resulting in different lineages of CePVs.

Viruela símica: zoonosis emergente con impacto global / Monkeypox: emerging zoonosis with unprecedentedglobal impact

El virus de la viruela símica es un orthopoxvirus de características zoonóticas endémico en las regiones de África Central y África Occidental, donde causa brotes desde 1970. En las últimas décadas se registró un aumento exponencial de casos, probablemente asociado a la disminución en la inmunidad conferida por la vacuna antivariólica, discontinuada luego de la erradicación de la viruela. En los últimos años se registraron casos esporádicos fuera del continente africano, siempre relacionados epidemiológicamente a la permanencia en áreas endémicas o contacto con animales infectados. Desde el 13 de mayo de 2022 se encuentra en curso el mayor brote de viruela símica registrado fuera de las áreas endémicas de África, con casos en los cinco continentes. La extensión, el impacto y la duración del brote permanecen aún inciertos.

Monkeypox virus is an orthopoxvirus with zoonotic characteristics endemic in Central and West Africa regions, where it has caused outbreaks since 1970. An exponential increase in cases has been registered in the last decades, probably associated with a decrease in the immunity conferred by the smallpox vaccine, discontinued after smallpox eradication. In recent years, sporadic cases have been reported outside the African continent, always epidemiologically related to permanence in endemic areas or contact with infected animals. Since May 13, 2022, the largest monkeypox outbreak ever reported outside Africa endemic areas, with cases on the five continents, is unfolding. The extent, impact and duration of this outbreak still remain uncertain

Diagnosis and successful treatment of Brazillian porcupine poxvirus infection in a free-ranging hairy dwarf porcupine (Coendu spinosus).

Brazilian porcupine poxvirus (BPoPV) is a new poxvirus recently described in porcupines (Coendou prehensilis) from Brazil. Herein, we described a free-ranging adult male Coendou (Sphiggurus) spinosus rescued after being found lethargic on the ground in a rural area. The animal presented crusty, edematous, and suppurative skin lesions on the face, tail, and perineum, and yellowish ocular secretion. The diagnosis was performed by histopathology, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), PCR, and sequencing. Microscopically, proliferative and necrotizing dermatitis, subacute, multifocal with ballooning degeneration, and eosinophilic intracytoplasmic viral inclusion bodies were observed. TEM confirmed large brick-shaped virions inside the keratinocyte cytoplasm, measuring about 200-280 × 120-180 nm. Partial fragment of intracellular mature virion membrane protein gene and putative metalloproteinase gene was successfully amplified and sequenced, and the strain herein denoted IAL/21 V-102 was classified as BPoPV, showing 99.4% of nucleotide identity to the reference strain UFU/USP001. Enrofloxacin 10% (10 mg/kg) was administered every 24 h through intramuscular injection for 10 days, dipyrone/metamizole (25 mg/kg) every 24 h orally (PO) for 3 days, 0.5 ml (mL) of thymomodulin every 24 h PO for 30 days, and each 48 h for another 15 days. The lesions were cleaned and debrided every 15 days. Seventy-five days after the beginning of the treatment, the cutaneous lesions regressed, the animal gained weight, and was clinically stable. After treatment, the skin biopsy showed only mild epidermal acanthosis, intra-cellular edema, and mild lymphoplasmacytic perivascular dermatitis. No viral particles were observed by TEM and no poxviral DNA was amplified by PCR. This study documents the first case of confirmed and treated BPoPV infection in a hairy dwarf porcupine. The implemented therapeutic plan eliminated the infection and improved the general state of the animal.

Genomic Characterization of the Historical Smallpox Vaccine Strain Wyeth Isolated from a 1971 Seed Vial.

The Wyeth strain of vaccinia virus (VACV) produced by Wyeth Pharmaceuticals was supposedly used to manufacture the old freeze-dried American smallpox vaccine, Dryvax, until its discontinuation in 2008. Although the genomic sequences of numerous Dryvax clones have been reported, data on VACV-Wyeth genomes are still lacking. Genomic analysis of old VACV strains is relevant to understand the evolutionary relationships of smallpox vaccines, particularly with the recent resumption of smallpox vaccination in certain population groups as an attempt to control the worldwide monkeypox outbreak. Here we analyzed the complete genome sequences of three VACV-Wyeth clonal isolates obtained from a single seed vial donated to the Brazilian eradication program in the 1970s. Wyeth clones show >99.3% similarity to each other and >95.3% similarity with Dryvax clones, mapping together in clade I of the vaccinia group. Although the patterns of SNPs and INDELs comparing Dryvax and Wyeth clones are overall uniform, important differences were detected particularly at the ends of the genome. In addition, we detected recombinant events of clone Wyeth A111 and the Dryvax clone Acam2000, suggesting that other regions of the genomes may have similar patchy patterns of recombination. A small-scale serological survey using VACV-Wyeth as antigen in ELISA assays revealed that 63 of the 65 individuals born before the end of smallpox vaccination in Brazil still have anti-VACV IgG antibodies, demonstrating the usefulness of the VACV-Wyeth strain in future extended serological studies of the Brazilian population.

Molusco contagioso: actualización y casos clínicos / Molluscum contagiosum: an update and clinical cases

El molusco contagioso es una patología viral benigna muy frecuente, exclusiva del ser humano, y causada por un virus no clasificado del grupo de los Poxvirus. Las manifestaciones clínicas de la enfermedad inclu-yen lesiones en la piel, que pueden variar desde una pequeña pápula a un nódulo de mayor tamaño, pre-sentándose en forma solitaria o múltiple, dependien-do del estado inmunitario del paciente y del tiempo de evolución del proceso morboso. El estudio histo-patológico es importante para el diagnóstico, aunque en numerosas ocasiones éste se define clínicamen-te. Además del patrón histológico tradicional, y más frecuente, que exhibe hiperplasia e hipertrofia de la epidermis, se han descripto variantes poco usuales, cuyas características dependen, entre otros factores, de la sobreinfección y de la respuesta inmunitaria del paciente. En este trabajo se describen los rasgos ge-nerales del molusco contagioso y luego se presentan varios casos clínicos, uno de los cuales exhibe ma-nifestación inusual en la semimucosa del labio. Por último, se realizan comentarios referentes a la im-portancia que tiene para el odontólogo conocer esta patología y estar capacitado para detectarla, de modo de evitar sus complicaciones y su diseminación (AU)

Molluscum contagiosum is a very common benign viral pathologythat affects exclusively humans and is caused by an unclassified virus of the Poxvirus family. Clinical manifestations include skin lesions such as papule or nodule, which may range from a small papule to a larger nodule, presenting either solitary or multiple, depending on the immune status of the patient and the time of evolution of the morbid process. Histopathological study is important for the diagnosis, although in numerous occasions it is defined clinically. Classical and more frequent histology pattern exhibits hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the epidermis; however, distinct characteristics may occur depending on factors like superinfection and immune response of patients. This article describes general aspects of molluscum contagiosum and exposes several clinical cases, one of which exhibits an unusual manifestation in the semimucosa of the lip. Finally, comments are made regarding the importance for dentists to learn about the existence of this pathology and be able to recognize it in order to avoid its complications and spread (AU)

Zoonotic vaccinia virus strains belonging to different genetic clades exhibit immunomodulation abilities that are proportional to their virulence.

BACKGROUND: The vaccinia virus (VACV) isolates, Guarani P1 virus (GP1V) and Passatempo virus (PSTV), were isolated during zoonotic outbreaks in Brazil. Each one of them belongs to two different VACV clades, defined by biological aspects that include virulence in mice and phylogenetic analysis. Considering that information about how vaccinia viruses from different groups elicit immune responses in animals is scarce, we investigated such responses in mice infected either by GP1V (group 2) or PSTV (group 1), using VACV Western Reserve strain (VACV-WR) as control. METHODS: The severity of the infections was evaluated in BALB/c mice considering diverse clinical signs and defined scores, and the immune responses triggered by GP1V and PSTV infections were analysed by immune cell phenotyping and intra-cytoplasmic cytokines detection. RESULTS: We detected a reduction in total lymphocytes (CD3 +), macrophages (CD14 +), and NK cells (CD3-CD49 +) in animals infected with VACV-WR or GP1V. The VACV-WR and GP1V viruses, belonging to the most virulent group in a murine model, were able to down-modulate the cell immune responses upon mice infection. In contrast, PSTV, a virus considered less virulent in a murine model, showed little ability to down-modulate the mice immune responses. Mice infected with VACV-WR and GP1V viruses presented significant weight loss and developed lesions in their spleens, as well as damage to liver and lungs whereas mice infected with PSTV developed only moderate clinical signs. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that VACV immunomodulation in vivo is clade-related and is proportional to the strain's virulence upon infection. Our data corroborate the classification of the different Brazilian VACV isolates into clades 1 and 2, taking into account not only phylogenetic criteria, but also clinical and immunological data.

Genomic Analysis of Novel Poxvirus Brazilian Porcupinepox Virus, Brazil, 2019.

We obtained the complete sequence of a novel poxvirus, tentatively named Brazilian porcupinepox virus, from a wild porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) in Brazil that had skin and internal lesions characteristic of poxvirus infection. The impact of this lethal poxvirus on the survival of this species and its potential zoonotic importance remain to be investigated.

Identification of Clade E Avipoxvirus in Brazil.

Avian poxvirus (APV) is an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that affects many domestic and wild birds worldwide. APVs are classified into three clades (A to C), represented by fowlpox (FP) virus (clade A), canarypox virus (clade B), and psittacinepox virus (clade C), although two additional clades (D and E) have been proposed. In this study, a tumorlike skin lesion found in a domestic fowl was submitted for molecular diagnosis of Avipoxvirus by PCR and sequencing. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the amplified segment of the corelike 4b protein and polymerase genes clustered in clade E. The APVs in clade E were previously reported from outbreaks in Hungary (flock of turkeys) and in Mozambique (layer chickens), associated with a possible vaccine failure to protect against clade E viruses. To our knowledge, this report is the first identification of clade E in this country, providing new information about host range and genetic diversity of APVs in Brazil, and may represent a potential risk of FP disease outbreaks in commercial poultry.

Reporte de caso- Identificación del Avipoxvirus clado E en Brasil. El poxvirus aviar (APV) es un virus de ADN bicatenario envuelto que afecta a muchas aves domésticas y silvestres en todo el mundo. Los poxvirus aviares se clasifican en tres clados (A, B y C), representados por el virus de la viruela aviar (FP) (clado A), el virus de la viruela del canario (clado B) y el virus de la viruela de los psitácidos (clado C), aunque dos clados adicionales (D y E) han sido propuestos. En este estudio, una lesión cutánea similar a un tumor encontrada en una gallina doméstica fue sometida a diagnóstico molecular de Avipoxvirus por PCR y secuenciación. El análisis filogenético reveló que el segmento amplificado de los genes de la proteína del centro 4b y de la polimerasa se agruparon en el clado E. Los poxvirus aviares en el clado E se reportaron previamente de brotes en Hungría (parvada de pavos) y en Mozambique (gallinas de postura), asociados con una posible falla de la vacuna para proteger contra los virus del clado E. De acuerdo con el conocimiento de los autores, este informe es la primera identificación del clado E en este país, brindando nueva información sobre el rango de hospedadores y la diversidad genética de poxvirus aviares en Brasil, y puede representar un riesgo potencial de brotes de viruela aviar en aves comerciales.

Virus goes viral: an educational kit for virology classes.

BACKGROUND: Viruses are the most numerous entities on Earth and have also been central to many episodes in the history of humankind. As the study of viruses progresses further and further, there are several limitations in transferring this knowledge to undergraduate and high school students. This deficiency is due to the difficulty in designing hands-on lessons that allow students to better absorb content, given limited financial resources and facilities, as well as the difficulty of exploiting viral particles, due to their small dimensions. The development of tools for teaching virology is important to encourage educators to expand on the covered topics and connect them to recent findings. Discoveries, such as giant DNA viruses, have provided an opportunity to explore aspects of viral particles in ways never seen before. Coupling these novel findings with techniques already explored by classical virology, including visualization of cytopathic effects on permissive cells, may represent a new way for teaching virology. This work aimed to develop a slide microscope kit that explores giant virus particles and some aspects of animal virus interaction with cell lines, with the goal of providing an innovative approach to virology teaching. METHODS: Slides were produced by staining, with crystal violet, purified giant viruses and BSC-40 and Vero cells infected with viruses of the genera Orthopoxvirus, Flavivirus, and Alphavirus. Slides with amoebae infected with different species of giant viruses and stained with hemacolor reagents were also produced. RESULTS: Staining of the giant viruses allowed better visualization of the viral particles, and this technique highlights the diversity in morphology and sizes among them. Hemacolor staining enabled visualization of viral factories in amoebae, and the staining of infected BSC-40 and Vero cell monolayers with crystal violet highlights plaque-forming units. CONCLUSIONS: This kit was used in practical virology classes for the Biological Sciences course (UFMG, Brazil), and it will soon be made available at a low-cost for elementary school teachers in institutions that have microscopes. We hope this tool will foster an inspiring learning environment.

Genomic diversity of vaccinia virus strain Cantagalo isolated in southeastern Brazil during the early years of the outbreak, 1999-2006

Outbreaks of a vesiculopustular disease in dairy cattle and milkers have been frequently reported in Brazil since 1999 when the vaccinia virus strain Cantagalo was first isolated in the State of Rio de Janeiro. However, the genomic diversity of the viral isolates associated with these outbreaks is not well known, particularly in the southeastern states that represent the focal point of virus spread to other regions. Here, we report the genomic sequences and an analysis of the polymorphic site profiles and genotypic diversity of four clinical isolates of vaccinia virus strain Cantagalo collected from 1999 to 2006 in southeastern Brazil.

NOVEL POXVIRAL INFECTION IN THREE FINCH SPECIES ILLEGALLY IMPORTED INTO TRINIDAD, WEST INDIES, WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR NATIVE BIRDS.

Oryzoborus angolensis (Lesser Seed-Finch), Oryzoborus crassirostris (Large-billed Seed-Finch), and Sporophila intermedia (Grey Seedeater) are finch species native to the Caribbean island of Trinidad. These species are locally trapped and kept for their song, but with declining native populations, enthusiasts have turned to illegally importing birds from the South American mainland. The smuggling of wild birds from South America poses significant disease risks to the native bird species of Trinidad. Herein we describe the first case of poxviral infection in these illegally imported birds in Trinidad and partial genome sequence of the causative agent. Phylogenetic analysis of the 4b core protein sequence indicated that the avian poxvirus identified was most closely related to a 2012 avian pox sequence from Brazil, with 96.2% and 98.1% identity at the nucleotide and amino acid level.

Molecular identification and microscopic characterization of poxvirus in a Guiana dolphin and a common bottlenose dolphin, Brazil.

The poxviruses identified in cetaceans are associated with characteristic tattoo or ring skin lesions. However, little is known regarding the prevalence and progression of these lesions and the molecular characterization of cetacean poxviruses in the Southern Hemisphere. This manuscript describes the progression of poxvirus-like skin lesions in 5 free-ranging Guiana dolphins Sotalia guianensis. Additionally, 151 skin samples from 113 free-ranging cetaceans from Brazil, including 4 animals with tattoo skin lesions, were selected for poxvirus testing. Poxviral DNA polymerase gene PCR amplification was used to detect the virus in ß-actin-positive samples (145/151). DNA topoisomerase I gene PCR was then used in Cetaceanpoxvirus (CePV)-positive cases (n = 2), which were further evaluated by histopathology and electron microscopy. Based on photo-identification, adult Guiana dolphins presented regressing or healed poxvirus-like lesions (2/2), while juveniles presented persistent (2/3) or healed and progressive lesions (1/3). CePV DNA was amplified in a common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus and in a Guiana dolphin. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies and viral particles consistent with poxvirus were identified by histology and electron microscopy, respectively. CePV-specific amino acid motifs were identified through phylogenetic analysis. Our findings corroborate previous studies that suggest the placement of poxviruses from cetaceans within the novel CePV genus. This is the first molecular identification of poxvirus in South American odontocetes.

Update on the Treatment of molluscum Contagiosum in children. / Actualización sobre el tratamiento de moluscos contagiosos en los niños.

Molluscum contagiosum is one of the most common viral infections in childhood. It is a benign and usually self-limiting infection, but its treatment in children can be challenging, particularly when the patient presents multiple lesions or when lesions are symptomatic or highly visible. Several treatment options exist. Choice of treatment depends on the number and location of lesions, the prior experience of the treating physician, and the preferences of the child's parents or carers. This article provides an update on treatment options for molluscum contagiosum, with a particular focus on immunocompetent pediatric patients.

In vitro susceptibility to ST-246 and Cidofovir corroborates the phylogenetic separation of Brazilian Vaccinia virus into two clades.

The Orthopoxvirus (OPV) genus of the Poxviridae family contains several human pathogens, including Vaccinia virus (VACV), which have been implicating in outbreaks of a zoonotic disease called Bovine Vaccinia in Brazil. So far, no approved treatment exists for OPV infections, but ST-246 and Cidofovir (CDV) are now in clinical development. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the susceptibility of five strains of Brazilian VACV (Br-VACV) to ST-246 and Cidofovir. The susceptibility of these strains to both drugs was evaluated by plaque reduction assay, extracellular virus's quantification in the presence of ST-246 and one-step growth curve in cells treated with CDV. Besides that, the ORFs F13L and E9L were sequenced for searching of polymorphisms associated with drug resistance. The effective concentration of 50% (EC50) from both drugs varies significantly for different strains (from 0.0054 to 0.051 µM for ST-246 and from 27.14 to 61.23 µM for CDV). ST-246 strongly inhibits the production of extracellular virus for all isolates in concentrations as low as 0.1 µM and it was observed a relevant decrease of progeny production for all Br-VACV after CDV treatment. Sequencing of the F13L and E9L ORFs showed that Br-VACV do not present the polymorphism(s) associated with resistance to ST-246 and CDV. Taken together, our results showed that ST-246 and CDV are effective against diverse, wild VACV strains and that the susceptibility of Br-VACV to these drugs mirrored the phylogenetic split of these isolates into two groups. Thus, both ST-246 and CDV are of great interest as compounds to treat individuals during Bovine Vaccinia outbreaks in Brazil.