The Interest in Betting, Smoking, Alcohol, and Drugs in Malawi: Changing Trends between 2012-2022.

Background: In recent years, the online gambling market has rapidly developed, and betting has become one of the most popular forms of gambling. The aim of this study was to analyse the interest of the Malawian population in terms related to betting, sports betting, alcohol, cigarettes, and some psychoactive drugs through the relative search volumes of Google Trends. Methods: Internet search query data related to betting, sports betting, alcohol, cigarettes, and psychoactive drugs were obtained monthly from Google Trends for the period 2010-2022. Comparisons of interest levels in these topics were conducted in Malawi, and correlation coefficients were calculated. Results: In Malawi, relative search volumes for betting and sports betting terms were the highest (average RSVs: 66% and 30%). It was found that from 2019 onwards, the interest in betting and sports-related search topics and keywords increased significantly (p < 0.001). Strong positive correlations were found between betting-related keywords and alcohol and gross domestic product (r = 0.831 and r = 0.901, p < 0.001). A positive correlation was found between betting and psychoactive drug-related terms (minimum r = 0.417, p < 0.01). Conclusions: This study concludes that the interest of the Malawian population in betting has increased in recent years, while interest in psychoactive drugs and alcohol remains high. Gross domestic product is highly correlated with society's interest in betting. It was additionally found that Google Trends can be used as a tool to predict and monitor future risky behaviours, such as gambling disorder.

Misperceiving Momentum: Computational Mechanisms of Biased Striatal Reward Prediction Errors in Bipolar Disorder.

Background: Dysregulated reward processing and mood instability are core features of bipolar disorder that have largely been considered separately, with contradictory findings. We sought to test a mechanistic account that emphasizes an excessive tendency in bipolar disorder to enter recursive cycles in which reward perception is biased by signals that the environment may be changing for the better or worse. Methods: Participants completed a probabilistic reward task with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Using an influential computational model, we ascertained whether participants with bipolar disorder (n = 21) showed greater striatal tracking of momentum-biased reward prediction errors (RPEs) than matched control participants (n = 21). We conducted psychophysiological interaction analyses to quantify the degree to which each group modulated functional connectivity between the ventral striatum and left anterior insula in response to fluctuations in momentum. Results: In participants with bipolar disorder, but not control participants, the momentum-biased RPE model accounted for significant additional variance in striatal activity beyond a standard model of veridical RPEs. Compared with control participants, participants with bipolar disorder exhibited lower insular-striatal functional connectivity modulated by momentum-biased RPEs, an effect that was more pronounced as a function of current manic symptoms. Conclusions: Consistent with existing theory, we found evidence that bipolar disorder is associated with a tendency for momentum to excessively bias striatal tracking of RPEs. We identified impaired insular-striatal connectivity as a possible locus for this propensity. We argue that computational psychiatric approaches that examine momentary shifts in reward and mood dynamics have strong potential for yielding new mechanistic insights and intervention targets.

Bipolar disorder is characterized by extremes in mood and dysregulated reward processing. Moningka and Mason evaluated a neurocomputational model in which mood disturbances arise from an excessive tendency for momentum over recent experiences to bias reward perception. Using model-based functional MRI, the authors found that in contrast to matched control participants, participants with bipolar disorder exhibited fluctuations in reward-related neural responses that are modulated by momentum. They discuss this excessive neural tracking of momentum as one of the mechanisms that may underlie the propensity to enter recursive mood cycles in bipolar disorder.

Transitional photoperiod induces a mania-like behavior in male mice.

This study aimed to investigate the behavioral responses and circadian rhythms of mice to both rapid and gradual increases in photoperiod, mimicking the transition from winter to summer, which is associated with a heightened prevalence of hospitalizations for mania and suicidal behavior. Behavioral tests were performed in C57BL/6 male mice exposed to a transitional photoperiod, from short to long durations. To determine if circadian rhythms are affected, we measured spontaneous locomotor activity and body temperature. Mice exhibited heightened exploratory and risk-taking behaviors compared with equatorial and static long (16:8 h of light-dark cycle for several days) groups. These behaviors were prevented by lithium. Spontaneous locomotor activity and body temperature rhythms persisted and were effectively synchronized; however, the relative amplitude of activity and interdaily stability were diminished. Additionally, the animals displayed increased activity during the light phase. Photoperiodic transition modulates behavior and circadian rhythms, mirroring certain features observed in bipolar disorder patients. This study introduces an animal model for investigating mania-like behavior induced by photoperiodic changes, offering potential insights for suicide prevention strategies and the management of mood disorders.

EXPRESS: Personal Sense of Power Predicts Financial Risk-Taking Propensity - But Only When Risk-Related Decisions Are Made Without Cognitive Load.

A significant relationship between a sense of power and financial risk-taking has been established in the literature. However, the boundary conditions for this relationship remain unclear. This article presents the results of an online experimental study (N = 192) that explores the moderating role of cognitive load in the relationship between power and financial risk-taking in the domains of gambling and investing. The findings validate a positive association between a sense of power and financial risk-taking, alongside a negative impact of cognitive load on financial risk. Notably, cognitive load moderates the relationship between power and financial risk-taking in a way that the link is positive when individuals have full access to their cognitive resources, but it becomes non-significant when they are under cognitive load.

Lived experience at the core: A classification system for risk-taking behaviours in bipolar.

Objective: Clinical observations suggest that individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar face difficulties regulating emotions and impairments to their cognitive processing, which can contribute to high-risk behaviours. However, there are few studies which explore the types of risk-taking behaviour that manifest in reality and evidence suggests that there is currently not enough support for the management of these behaviours. This study examined the types of risk-taking behaviours described by people who live with bipolar and their access to support for these behaviours. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with n = 18 participants with a lived experience of bipolar and n = 5 healthcare professionals. The interviews comprised open-ended questions and a Likert-item questionnaire. The responses to the interview questions were analysed using content analysis and corpus linguistic methods to develop a classification system of risk-taking behaviours. The Likert-item questionnaire was analysed statistically and insights from the questionnaire were incorporated into the classification system. Results: Our classification system includes 39 reported risk-taking behaviours which we manually inferred into six domains of risk-taking. Corpus linguistic and qualitative analysis of the interview data demonstrate that people need more support for risk-taking behaviours and that aside from suicide, self-harm and excessive spending, many behaviours are not routinely monitored. Conclusion: This study shows that people living with bipolar report the need for improved access to psychologically informed care, and that a standardised classification system or risk-taking questionnaire could act as a useful elicitation tool for guiding conversations around risk-taking to ensure that opportunities for intervention are not missed. We have also presented a novel methodological framework which demonstrates the utility of computational linguistic methods for the analysis of health research data.

Exposure to low (10 cGy) doses of 4He ions leads to an apparent increase in risk taking propensity in female rats.

The planned missions to the Moon and Mars will present more significant health challenges to astronauts compared to low earth orbit missions. During deep space missions, astronauts will be constantly exposed to Space radiation (SR). Multiple rodent studies suggest that < 25 cGy of SR impairs performance in executive functions, which play a key role in advanced cognitive processes, but also regulate response inhibition and impulse control. There is the possibility that SR exposure may exacerbate aberrant behaviors evoked by psychological stress related to exposure to isolated and confined (ICE) hostile environment or independently induce additional aberrant behaviors. This study has determined that female Wistar rats exposed to 10 cGy of 250 MeV/n He had an increased risk taking propensity (RTP)\compared to shams. The increased RTP of the He-exposed rats was associated with significantly increased reaction times during the trials, suggesting a SR-induced loss of processing speed. The response times of the He-exposed rats were even further reduced in trials that immediately followed a loss, raising the possibility that conflict and interference avoidance may be impaired after SR exposure. Whether these findings occur following other types of SR exposure, and/or in male rats remains to be determined.

Parental Psychological Control and College Students' Negative Risk-Taking Behaviors: The Chain-Mediating of Autonomy and Self-Control.

Purpose: To deeply explore the relationship between parental psychological control and negative risk-taking behaviors among Chinese college students and the mediating role of autonomy and self-control, providing a reference basis for preventing and intervening in college students' negative risk-taking behaviors. Patients and Methods: Questionnaires was administered to 1173 college students (Mage=20.7 ± 1.32) in Hunan Province using four scales. Subsequently, we processed and analyzed the collected data using SPSS 26.0 software. Results: Parental psychological control demonstrated a significantly positive correlation with college students' negative risk-taking behaviors. The impact of parental psychological control on college students' negative risk-taking behaviors was mediated by self-control and the combined effect of autonomy and self-control. Conclusion: Among Chinese college students, autonomy and self-control act as a sequential mediating factor between negative risk-taking behaviors and parental psychological control. This study uncovered the underlying process by which parenting practices affected college students' negative risk-taking behaviors. It offers empirical support for successful treatments aimed at reducing future risk-taking behaviors among college students, as well as some evidence in favor of the crucial part that parenting styles play in the development of positive adolescents.

Multiple risk-taking behaviors in Korean adolescents and associated factors: 2020 and 2021 Korea youth risk behavior web-based survey.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the negative health impact of multiple risk-taking behaviors (RTBs), there is a lack of understanding of adolescents who are more prone to multiple RTBs. This study aimed to identify sociodemographic, mental, and physical health variables associated with increased susceptibility to multiple RTBs in each sex. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from the 2020 and 2021 Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey was used. A total of 106,979 Korean adolescents (55,460 men and 51,519 women) were assessed on five RTBs (alcohol use, smoking, sexual intercourse, illicit substance use, no seat belt wearing). In comparison to no RTB group, odds ratios of the relevant covariate factors were calculated in one RTB or multiple RTBs groups. RESULTS: Male and female adolescents engaging in multiple RTBs were 6.4% and 3.8%, respectively. Increasing age, low subjective socioeconomic status, and living in rural areas were associated with multiple RTBs regardless of sex. All mental health variables except anxiety were associated with multiple RTBs in both sexes. Physical inactivity and obesity were associated with decreased odds of multiple RTBs in both sexes. CONCLUSION: This study identifies diverse factors associated with multiple RTBs of Korean adolescents and demonstrates existing sex differences. Age and mental health status are the most critical factors that distinguish multiple risk-taking groups from those involved in one or no RTB.

[Perception of cannabis use in the adolescent population: metasynthesis of qualitative studies]. / Percepción del consumo de cannabis en población adolescente: metasíntesis de estudios cualitativos.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the perceptions and beliefs of adolescents about cannabis consumption, studying the incentive and disincentive factors for consumption. METHOD: A systematic review of the literature was carried out following the PRISMA guidelines. MedLine, Embase, APA PsycInfo, Cochrane and Web of Science were searched using controlled vocabulary and free terms. We included qualitative studies published between 2000 and 2024 that assessed the perceptions of adolescents aged 10 to 19 years on the use, effects, risks of using cannabis or cannabis with other legal drugs. The quality of the studies was assessed using the CASP tool. RESULTS: Of the 3665 articles identified in the initial search, 22 complied with elegibility criteria. Data extraction yielded a series of three lines of argument linked to cannabis use: reasons for use, reasons for not using and perceived effects. The most common discourse among adolescents was related to the feeling of social and emotional well-being, fewer adverse effects than drugs, and the influence of peers on consumption. CONCLUSIONS: The review preformed reports on the reasons that adolescents allege for cannabis use and reasons for abstention with a view of the preponderance of benefits over harms. It is considered that this information may be necessary for the development of prevention programmes with the dissemination of information on the effects of consumption.

Stress, Mental Health, and Risk-Taking: Associations among a Sample of Agricultural Adolescents.

Farm stress and mental health research has largely focused on adult producers, even though youths live and work on farms. The purpose of this study is to describe the stress and mental health experience of agricultural youths and describe participation in risk-taking behaviors. Farm families in the U.S. were invited to participate in an online survey that inquired about farm economics, stress (ASQ-S), mental health (PHQ-A and SCARED), parenting, social support, and risk-taking behaviors during the summers in 2021 and 2022. This analysis is limited to adolescent respondents (N = 298). Just over 70% of the farm adolescent sample met the criteria for at least mild symptoms of depression (PHQ-A score ≥ 5). Among anxiety disorders, 62.8% of the farm adolescent sample met the criteria for probable panic disorder, and 70.5% met the criteria for probable separation anxiety disorder. Adolescents reported the most stress around future uncertainty and school performance. The stress scores were significantly associated with more symptoms of depression. Over a quarter (27.7%) of the participants reported carrying a weapon at least 1 day in the past month, and 22.5% reported carrying a weapon on school property at least 1 day in the past month. Violence-related risk-taking behaviors were also associated with increased symptoms of depression. The results underscore the need for community- and school-based stress and mental health interventions in rural and agricultural communities.

Aberrant decision-making as a risk factor for falls in aging.

Neuromotor impairments resulting from natural aging and aging-related diseases are often accompanied by a heightened prevalence of falls and fall-related injuries. Conventionally, the study of factors contributing to falls focuses on intrinsic characteristics, such as sensorimotor processing delays and weakness, and extrinsic factors, such as environmental obstacles. However, the impact of these factors only becomes evident in response to people's decisions about how and where they will move in their environment. This decision-making process can be considered a behavioral risk factor, and it influences the extent to which a person engages in activities that place them near the limits of their capacity. While there are readily available tools for assessing intrinsic and extrinsic fall risk, our understanding of how to assess behavioral risk is limited. Measuring behavioral risk requires a systematic assessment of how people make decisions when walking in complex environments and how these decisions relate to their functional capacity. We propose that experimental methods and computational models derived from behavioral economics can stimulate the development of such assessments. Behavioral economics relies on theoretical models and empirical studies to characterize the factors that influence how people make decisions under risky conditions where a given decision can have variable outcomes. Applying a behavioral economic approach to walking can provide insight into how internal assessment of one's fall risk influences the tasks that one is willing to perform. Ultimately, these assessments will allow us to identify people who make choices that increase their likelihood of fall-related injuries.

Habitat structural complexity predicts cognitive performance and behaviour in western mosquitofish.

Urban stream syndrome alters stream habitat complexity. We define habitat complexity as the degree of variation in physical habitat structure, with increasing variation equating to higher complexity. Habitat complexity affects species composition and shapes animal ecology, physiology, behaviour and cognition. We used a delayed detour test to measure whether cognitive processes (motor self-regulation) and behaviour (risk-taking) of female Western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, varied with habitat structural complexity (low, moderate and high) that was quantified visually for nine populations. We predicted that motor self-regulation and risk-taking behaviour would increase with increasing habitat complexity, yet we found support for the opposite. Lower complexity habitats offer less refuge potentially leading to higher predation pressure and selecting for greater risk-taking by fish with higher motor self-regulation. Our findings provide insight into how habitat complexity can shape cognitive processes and behaviour and offers a broader understanding of why some species may tolerate conditions of urbanized environments.

Exploring the relationship between social activities and financial risk aversion in adults aged 50 + with depression caseness.

BACKGROUND: Risk aversion due to depression is common among older adults, and social participation is associated with improved mental health and a lower risk of late-life depression. However, little is known about the connection between participation in social activities and risky financial decisions among adults with depression. Thus, we aim to examine the connection between participation in social activities and taking financial risks and investing in risky financial assets (with high-return potential) in such individuals, differentiated by age and gender. The study also focuses on analyzing the percentage of investors within each social activity, their attendance frequency, and motivation. METHODS: The data was obtained from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) database Wave 2 (2006-2010). The study included 8,769 individuals aged 50 + with depression caseness, from 15 European countries and Israel who answered the question on participation in social activities and reported financial risk-taking intentions or behaviors (investing in stocks or shares, mutual funds or managed investment accounts, and both). The study utilized Pearson chi-square, odds ratios, Z, and hierarchical logistic regression tests. RESULTS: The odds for taking financial risks and investing in risky financial assets were higher for those participating in social activities compared to those who did not, on both intentional (by 173%) and behavioral (by 240-397%) levels. Such social activities (attended at least once a week, without financial motivation) have been shown to be primarily represented by educational or training courses - where 33% of participants invested in risky financial assets. The connection persisted after controlling for gender, age, marital status, children, income. CONCLUSIONS: By overcoming the subjects' financial risk aversion, participation in social activities may help improve mental health in individuals aged 50 + with depression caseness. This has important implications for policymakers in healthcare, who by updating healthcare policies can fund and facilitate participation in social activities. As a result, the national healthcare system may benefit from lower hospitalization-related expenses, and generate higher cash flows into the country's economy using the population's renewed interest in investing available funds. These results are relevant in the wake of COVID-19 that increased loneliness and depression rates.

Revisiting adolescence as a sensitive period for sociocultural processing.

Waves of research and public discourse have characterized adolescence as periods of developmental risk and opportunity. Underlying this discussion is the recognition that adolescence is a period of major biological and social transition when experience may have an outsized effect on development. This article updates and expands upon prior work suggesting that adolescence may be a sensitive period for sociocultural processing specifically. By integrating evidence from developmental psychology and neuroscience, we identify how trajectories of social and neurobiological development may relate to adolescents' ability to adapt to and learn from their social environments. However, we also highlight gaps in the literature, including challenges in attributing developmental change to adolescent experiences. We discuss the importance of better understanding variability in biology (e.g., pubertal development) and cultural environments, as well as distinguishing between sensitive periods and periods of heightened sensitivity. Finally, we look toward future directions and translational implications of this research.

Risk-Taking Behavior Differs Between Older Adults with and without Mild Cognitive Impairment.

Background: Adequately evaluating risk and making decisions is vital but understudied for older adults living independently but with compromised cognition, as seen in those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), specifically those with amnestic MCI (aMCI) which is associated with higher risk of conversion to Alzheimer's disease. Objective: We propose to comprehensively evaluate risk-taking behaviors across domains important for everyday activities between an aMCI group and their cognitively healthy counterparts (HC). Methods: A case-control study design. Data on risk-taking behaviors via the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking Scale (DOSPERT), and candidate confounding mental health factors (i.e., neurodegeneration, depression, and fatigue) were collected. Analyses on group difference and interaction between group and confounding factors on risk-taking behaviors were conducted. Results: The aMCI group showed a higher likelihood of risk-taking than HC (t = 4.38, df = 73, p < 0.001). Moderation analysis showed fatigue (F = 5.91, p = 0.018) and presence of depression (F = 4.52, p = 0.037), but not neurodegeneration, as significant moderators for group and DOSPERT total score, controlling for sex. In post-hoc analyses, there was a significant relationship between both fatigue (B = -7.83, SE = 3.65, t = -2.14, p = 0.036), and presence of depression (B = -20.80, SE = 9.97, t = -2.09, p = 0.041), with DOSPERT total score for HC but not for aMCI. There were no significant relationships between neurodegeneration, fatigue, or depression with any specific risk-taking domains after correction for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: Our results show differences in risk-taking behavior between older adults with and without intact cognition, and overall decision-making is affected by fatigue and depression in HC but not aMCI, together suggesting the importance of cognition in the ability to adjust risk-taking behaviors.

High School Teacher Bullying and Student Risk Behavior.

PURPOSE: Although the harmful outcomes of peer bullying are well-established, the effects of bullying by teachers are less understood. Teacher bullying occurs when a teacher uses their authority to punish or disparage a student beyond appropriate discipline. METHODS: This study investigated the prevalence of teacher bullying and its relationship with student risk-taking behaviors in a sample of 106,865 high school students who completed a statewide school climate survey. Students were classified into four groups: no bullying (91%), only peer bullying (4%), only teacher bullying (4%), and both peer and teacher bullying (2%). RESULTS: Logistic regression results indicated that all victimization groups were more likely to participate in risk behaviors (substance use, weapon carrying, fighting, suicidal ideation, and attempts) than nonbullied peers, and students bullied by both peers and teachers were at greatest jeopardy of participation. DISCUSSION: These results support greater attention to teacher bullying in antibullying efforts.

Effects of outdoor recreational physical challenges on general self-efficacy: A randomized controlled trial.

Outdoor programs involving recreational physical challenges are becoming increasingly popular for training and development purposes among adults, but rigorous studies investigating their effectiveness remain scarce. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of an outdoor adventure-based program on measures of self-efficacy, resilience, risk-taking propensity, and perceived stress. Participants were randomly assigned either to an intervention condition (half-day high ropes course) or a wait-list control group. Measures were taken at baseline and four days post-intervention and on the day to measure intervention perceptions. Significant increases in self-efficacy and risk-taking propensity were observed for the intervention arm compared to the control arm. Greater intervention engagement and affective valence ratings were associated with self-efficacy change. These findings highlight the practical relevance of adventure-based experiences for organizations and educational institutions seeking to enhance young adults' self-confidence. Additionally, they emphasize the importance of tailoring interventions to individual needs and ensuring positive participant experiences to achieve desired outcomes.

An ecological assessment of decision-making under risk and ambiguity through the virtual serious game Kalliste Decision Task.

Traditional methods for evaluating decision-making provide valuable insights yet may fall short in capturing the complexity of this cognitive capacity, often providing insufficient for the multifaceted nature of decisions. The Kalliste Decision Task (KDT) is introduced as a comprehensive, ecologically valid tool aimed at bridging this gap, offering a holistic perspective on decision-making. In our study, 81 participants completed KDT alongside established tasks and questionnaires, including the Mixed Gamble Task (MGT), Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), and Stimulating & Instrumental Risk Questionnaire (S&IRQ). They also completed the User Satisfaction Evaluation Questionnaire (USEQ). The results showed excellent usability, with high USEQ scores, highlighting the user-friendliness of KDT. Importantly, KDT outcomes showed significant correlations with classical decision-making variables, shedding light on participants' risk attitudes (S&IRQ), rule-based decision-making (MGT), and performance in ambiguous contexts (IGT). Moreover, hierarchical clustering analysis of KDT scores categorized participants into three distinct profiles, revealing significant differences between them on classical measures. The findings highlight KDT as a valuable tool for assessing decision-making, addressing limitations of traditional methods, and offering a comprehensive, ecologically valid approach that aligns with the complexity and heterogeneity of real-world decision-making, advancing research and providing insights for understanding and assessing decision-making across multiple domains.

Effectiveness of signs for pedestrian-railroad crossings: Colors, shapes, and messaging strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Train-pedestrian conflicts result in a substantial number of serious and fatal injuries annually. Signs indicating safe and permissible behaviors near railroad rights of way are commonly relied upon to mitigate collisions. However, the effectiveness of these signs in preventing accidents often depends on clarity and interpretation of the sign. The objective of this study was to evaluate the (1) effectiveness of sign messaging strategies and designs at pedestrian-railroad crossings, and (2) effects of context and risk-taking propensity on decisions to cross tracks. METHOD: A survey study (N = 1011) was conducted comparing likeliness to cross for a variety of pedestrian-railroad scenarios. The DOSPERT scale was included to estimate an individuals' risk-taking. RESULTS: Findings reveal that action-conveying and emotionally-motivated signs are more effective in discouraging railroad crossing in high-risk situations (i.e., train present, crossing gates down, or warning lights flashing), compared to information-only signs. However, decisions to cross are primarily influenced by the presence of a train and crossing gates' status, followed by sign type. MaxDiff analysis show that yellow signs with black symbols and square shaped signs are perceived as the clearest in conveying safety information, compared to black on white, red on white, and circular signs. Additionally, individuals who cross railroad tracks as pedestrians more frequently exhibit higher risk-taking tendencies, while there is no relationship between driving across tracks and risk-taking propensity. Males and younger individuals also have higher risk-taking tendencies. CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: These findings have implications for policy and practice, such as revising manuals to incorporate more effective sign designs and targeted educational campaigns for high-risk groups. It is also crucial to conduct ongoing monitoring of implemented interventions, which could follow the framework presented in this paper. The study emphasizes collaboration across sectors to improve overall safety at pedestrian-railroad crossings, contributing to safer transportation infrastructure for all.

Religiosity, Financial Risk Taking, and Reward Processing: An Experimental Study.

The present study investigated the extent to which financial risk-taking (FRT) perspectives and religiosity influenced an individual's performance on financial decision-making tasks under risk and/or uncertainty. It further investigated the potential to measure this interaction using electro-encephalogram (EEG) assessments through reward-related event-related potentials (P3 and FRN). EEG data were collected from 37 participants undergoing four decision-making tasks comprising the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), Iowa Gambling Test (IGT), Mixed-Gamble Loss-Aversion Task (MGLAT), and MGLA-Success Task (MGLAST). The present study found that BART performance may be affected by an interaction of FRT perspectives and religiosity. The physiological effects of task feedback were also distinguished between religious and non-religious individuals objectively with EEG data. Overall, while religiosity and FRT may not significantly influence IGT and MGLA performance, and interact with BART in a complex way, physiological reaction towards feedback after BART performance appears to be strongly affected by religiosity and FRT perspectives.