How Climate Warming Influences the Phenology of Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in China: Insight from Long-Term Historical Data.

Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916), a significant pest affecting various fruits such as pears, apples, peaches, etc., is highly adaptable to changing temperatures. However, the phenological response mechanism of this pest to climate warming remains unclear. To address this issue, we collected population dynamics data of G. molesta in China over the years along with corresponding climate data. We analyzed five phenological indexes: the first, end, and peak occurrence dates of contemporary adults as well as the first and peak occurrence dates of overwintering adults in China. Results revealed an upward trend in the annual average temperature and average temperature of the four seasons in regions infested by G. molesta in eastern, northeastern, northwestern, northern, and southwestern China from 1980 to 2020. Notably, the population peak date of overwintering adults in northeastern and eastern China significantly advanced along with the first occurrence date and the population peak date of overwintering adults in northern China. Additionally, the population peak date of contemporary adults in northwestern China significantly advanced. However, the end occurrence date of contemporary adults in northern China was significantly delayed, as was the first occurrence date of overwintering adults in northwestern China. Furthermore, our study demonstrated spatial heterogeneity in the phenological response of G. molesta to climate warming across China. This study elucidates the phenological response of G. molesta to climate warming, offering valuable insights for predicting future pest infestations and informing adaptive pest management strategies in fruit tree cultivation.

Biology of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Lamiaceae) from Different Ecological and Geographical Places of Growth during Introduction.

The variability in the development of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Lamiaceae) plants collected from natural habitats (Zabaykalsky krai, Amur oblast, and Primorye) and grown under the same culturing conditions (Novosibirsk) is analyzed. It has been found that interpopulation differences in morphological characteristics of S. baicalensis and the timing of the onset of phenophases developed in nature are preserved under new growing conditions. Data analysis shows the existence of significant differences (t > 3) between the steppe Zabaykalsky and forest Primorye coenopolations (CPs) in plant height, number of pairs of leaves, and number of shoots, both in nature and during introduction. The flowering period in the Zabaykalsky CPs comes earlier than in the Primorye CP, both in nature and in culture. Individuals of Zabaykalsky CPs bloom in early July in culture. The flowering period in the Primorye CP begins at the end of July-August; the seed ripening period is extended, especially in the first years of introduction. It is possible to allow the formation of steppe Zabaykalsky and forest Primorye ecotypes.

Epífitas vasculares: el patito feo de los estudios fenológicos / Vascular epiphytes: the ugly duckling of phenological studies

ABSTRACT The phenology of vascular epiphytes, which account for about 10 % of the world's flowering plants and perform important ecological functions, has been just partially explored. Since phenology is a key tool for the management and conservation of species, the objective of this review was to synthesize the information published so far about the phenology of vascular epiphytes, detect gaps of knowledge, and suggest future lines of investigation to understand the underlying mechanisms. We conducted an online search for articles in Google Scholar and in the ISI Web of Science database from 1800 to 2020, with different combinations of keywords. 107 studies addressing the phenology of different holoepiphyte species were found; 88 % of the studies were performed in the Neotropic, especially in tropical and subtropical wet forests. The phenology of only ca. 2 % (418 spp.) of all reported holoepiphyte species has been explored. There is a bias toward the study of the flowering and fruiting phenology in members of the Orchidaceae (192 spp.) and Bromeliaceae (124 spp.) families. In general, the vegetative and reproductive phenology of epiphytes tends to be seasonal; however, there is a huge gap in our understanding of the proximate and ultimate factors involved. Future research should explicitly focus on studying those factors.

RESUMEN Las epífitas vasculares, que representan cerca del 10 % de la flora vascular y cumplen funciones ecológicas importantes, se han explorado poco desde el punto de vista fenológico. Dado que la fenología es una herramienta clave para el manejo y conservación de especies, el objetivo de este trabajo fue sintetizar la información publicada, detectar vacíos de conocimiento y sugerir líneas de investigación que permitan entender los mecanismos que regulan la fenología de este grupo. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos en Google Académico y en la base de datos ISI Web of Science desde 1800 a 2020, con diferentes combinaciones de palabras clave. Se encontraron 107 estudios que abordan la fenología de especies holoepífitas, el 88 % de estos estudios se realizaron en el Neotrópico, principalmente en bosques lluviosos tropicales y subtropicales. Solamente se ha estudiado la fenología de ca. 2 % (418 spp.) del total de especies de holoepífitas reportadas; los trabajos se han enfocado principalmente en estudiar la floración y fructificación de miembros de Orchidaceae (192 spp.) y Bromeliaceae (124 spp.). La fenología vegetativa y reproductiva de las epífitas tiende a ser estacional. Sin embargo, existe un vacío enorme de los factores próximos y últimos implicados; los futuros estudios pueden enfocarse a elucidar qué factores detonan la fenología de epífitas vasculares.

Development of a Mating Disruption Program for a Mealybug, Planococcus ficus, in Vineyards.

The vine mealybug (VMB), Planococcus ficus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a key insect pest of vineyards, and improvements in sustainable control of this pest are needed to meet increasing consumer demand for organically farmed products. One promising option is mating disruption. In a series of experiments conducted from 2004 to 2007, we tested the effects of mating disruption on trap captures of Pl. ficus males in pheromone-baited traps, on Pl. ficus numbers and age structure on vines, and on damage to grape clusters. From 2004 to 2005, the effects of dispenser load (mg active ingredient per dispenser) were also assessed, and dispensers were compared to a flowable formulation. Across all trials, mating disruption consistently reduced pheromone trap captures and often reduced mealybug numbers on vines and/or crop damage, regardless of the pheromone dose that was applied. Reductions in Pl. ficus densities in mating disruption plots were not accompanied by clear effects on mealybug population age structure; however, production of non-viable ovisacs by unmated females may have obscured differences in proportional representation of ovisacs. Pheromone trap captures were never lowered to zero (often called trap shut down), possibly because trials were conducted in vineyards with unusually high Pl. ficus densities. Trap-capture patterns in both treated and control plots commonly began low in April-May, increased in mid-July or August, and often decreased in September-October when post-harvest insecticides were applied. During the four-year trial, the release rate from plastic sachet dispensers was improved by industry cooperators as pheromone was released too quickly (2004) or not completely released during the season (2005-2006). The flowable formulation performed slightly better than dispensers at the same application dose. Results over all years suggest season-long coverage or late-season coverage may be as or more important than dose per hectare. Development of a dispenser with optimized season-long pheromone emission or targeted seasonal periods should be a future goal.

Seasonal Development, Cumulative Growing Degree-Days, and Population Density of Spotted Lanternfly (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) on Selected Hosts and Substrates.

Seasonal development, cumulative growing degree-days (CUMDD10), and population density of Lycorma delicatula (White) were studied through weekly sampling of 30 plants (5 plants/species, 3 common plus 3 site-specific species per site) at six sites in Pennsylvania in 2019. In total, 24,159 L. delicatula (1,987 egg masses, 1,068 first instars, 239 second instars, 153 third instars, 410 fourth instars, and 20,302 adults) were recorded in 28 wk. Seasonal development followed similar pattern at all sites despite differences in starting, peaking, and ending time for specific life stages. The average CUMDD10 requirement for the onset of the first instars, second instars, third instars, fourth instars, adults, and eggs was 270, 465, 645, 825, 1,112, and 1,825, respectively. Population density ranged from 0 to 207.4, 0-298.9, and 0-9.6/m2 for nymphs, adults, and egg masses, respectively. Significant difference in population density was found between sites, hosts/substrates, and sampling weeks. Favored oviposition substrates included tree-of-heaven and black birch despite egg masses being laid on many other surfaces. Nymphs fed on different hosts in early stages but preferred American beech, tree-of-heaven, black birch, and multiflora rose. Adults were predominately found on tree-of-heaven with preoviposition surge on black birch and red maple. Sizable nymph and adult populations persisted on summer grape throughout the season. Tree-of-heaven played an irreplaceable role in the seasonal development and life history of L. delicatula in the field. Survey and detection activities should focus on tree-of-heaven with management efforts directed to aggregating adults for maximum efficacy.

Distinct Responses to Light in Plants.

The development of almost every living organism is, to some extent, regulated by light. When discussing light regulation on biological systems, one is referring to the sun that has long been positioned in the center of the solar system. Through light regulation, all life forms have evolved around the presence of the sun. As soon our planet started to develop an atmospheric shield against most of the detrimental solar UV rays, life invaded land, and in the presence of water, it thrived. Especially for plants, light (solar radiation) is the source of energy that controls a high number of developmental aspects of growth, a process called photomorphogenesis. Once hypocotyls reach soil's surface, its elongation deaccelerates, and the photosynthetic apparatus is established for an autotrophic growth due to the presence of light. Plants can sense light intensities, light quality, light direction, and light duration through photoreceptors that accurately detect alterations in the spectral composition (UV-B to far-red) and are located throughout the plant. The most well-known mechanism promoted by light occurring on plants is photosynthesis, which converts light energy into carbohydrates. Plants also use light to signal the beginning/end of key developmental processes such as the transition to flowering and dormancy. These two processes are particularly important for plant´s yield, since transition to flowering reduces the duration of the vegetative stage, and for plants growing under temperate or boreal climates, dormancy leads to a complete growth arrest. Understanding how light affects these processes enables plant breeders to produce crops which are able to retard the transition to flowering and avoid dormancy, increasing the yield of the plant.

The seasonal development dynamics of the yak hair cycle transcriptome.

BACKGROUND: Mammalian hair play an important role in mammals' ability to adapt to changing climatic environments. The seasonal circulation of yak hair helps them adapt to high altitude but the regulation mechanisms of the proliferation and differentiation of hair follicles (HFs) cells during development are still unknown. Here, using time series data for transcriptome and hormone contents, we systematically analyzed the mechanism regulating the periodic expression of hair development in the yak and reviewed how different combinations of genetic pathways regulate HFs development and cycling. RESULTS: This study used high-throughput RNA sequencing to provide a detailed description of global gene expression in 15 samples from five developmental time points during the yak hair cycle. According to clustering analysis, we found that these 15 samples could be significantly grouped into three phases, which represent different developmental periods in the hair cycle. A total of 2316 genes were identified in these three consecutive developmental periods and their expression patterns could be divided into 9 clusters. In the anagen, genes involved in activating hair follicle growth are highly expressed, such as the WNT pathway, FGF pathway, and some genes related to hair follicle differentiation. In the catagen, genes that inhibit differentiation and promote hair follicle cell apoptosis are highly expressed, such as BMP4, and Wise. In the telogen, genes that inhibit hair follicle activity are highly expressed, such as DKK1 and BMP1. Through co-expression analysis, we revealed a number of modular hub genes highly associated with hormones, such as SLF2, BOP1 and DPP8. They may play unique roles in hormonal regulation of events associated with the hair cycle. CONCLUSIONS: Our results revealed the expression pattern and molecular mechanisms of the seasonal hair cycle in the yak. The findings will be valuable in further understanding the alpine adaptation mechanism in the yak, which is important in order to make full use of yak hair resources and promote the economic development of pastoral plateau areas.

Seasonal Dynamics of the Leaffooted Bug Leptoglossus zonatus and Its Implications for Control in Almonds and Pistachios.

Leptoglossus zonatus is a polyphagous pest found throughout much of the Western Hemisphere. In California, L. zonatus attacks almond, pistachio, pomegranate, and walnut crops, but the seasonal use of and economic damage to these crops varies. To better understand the seasonal changes of L. zonatus populations and to improve monitoring programs in California's San Joaquin Valley, we caged overwintering adult males and females and then followed the resulting population dynamics over a one-year period. There were three generations over the one-year period, although eggs, nymphs, and adults overlapped among successive generations. From an initial 75 overwintering adult females, there were 1214 egg strands, 16,692 nymphs, and 4900 adults recorded during the one-year period. Depending on the generation, the number of nymphs per egg strand ranged from 11.3 to 14.3; the sex ratio was close to 1:1 with the exception of one female-biased cage; and nymph mortality ranged from 22.0% to 39.5%. Adult females isolated from each generation produced 2.4-5.1 egg strands per female that totaled 41.7-61.7 eggs per female with a 67.1-86.8% successful hatch rate. We find that the adult is the overwintering stage, as more adults (without food provisions) survived the winter compared to medium-sized or large-sized nymphs provided with both food and water. The results are discussed with respect to the development of L. zonatus control and monitoring programs for California's multi-billion-dollar (US) nut crops.

Epicellular coccidiosis in goldfish.

In a goldfish stock held in a pet fish pond, heavy coccidian infection, caused by an epicellularly developing Goussia species, appeared in April of 3 consecutive years (2014 to 2016). The shape and size of the oocysts resembled those of an inadequately described species, Goussia carassiusaurati (Romero-Rodriguez, 1978). In histological sections, gamogonic and sporogonic stages infested mostly the second fifth of the intestine, where almost all epithelial cells were infected. Both gamonts and young oocysts occurred intracellularly but in an extracytoplasmal position, seemingly outside the cells. Oocysts were shed non-sporulated. Spheroid to ellipsoidal non-sporulated oocysts measured 12.4 × 13.5 µm on average, but after 48 h sporulation in tap water they reached a size of 16 × 13 µm. The 4 elliptical sporocysts located loosely within the sporulated oocysts measured 13 × 5.4 µm. The oocysts and sporocysts were smaller than those of the better-known Goussia species G. aurati (Hoffman, 1965).

Musk gland seasonal development and musk secretion are regulated by the testis in muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus).

BACKGROUND: The muskrat is a seasonal breeder. Males secrete musk to attract females during the breeding season. The testosterone binding to the androgen receptor (AR) in musk glands of muskrat may play an important role conducting the musk secretion process. METHODS: The musk gland, testis and blood samples of musk rats are collected in both breeding and non-breeding seasons. Some part of the samples are kept in liquid nitrogen for transcriptome analysis and Western blotting test. Some part of the samples are kept in 70% alcohol for histology experiment, blood samples are kept at -20 °C for the serum testosterone measurement experiment. RESULTS: This study demonstrates that the quantity of secreted musk, the volume of the musk glands, the diameter of the gland cells and AR expression are all higher during the breeding season than at other times (p < 0.01). StAR, P450scc and 3ß-HSD expression in the Leydig cells of the testis were also higher during this season, as was serum testosterone. AR was also observed in the gland cells of two other musk-secreting animals, the musk deer and small Indian civet, in their musk glands. These results suggest that the testes and musk glands co-develop seasonally. CONCLUSION: The musk glands' seasonal development and musk secretion are regulated by the testes, and testosterone plays an important role in the seasonal development of musk glands.

Musk gland seasonal development and musk secretion are regulated by the testis in muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)

BACKGROUND: The muskrat is a seasonal breeder. Males secrete musk to attract females during the breeding season. The testosterone binding to the androgen receptor (AR) in musk glands of muskrat may play an important role conducting the musk secretion process. METHODS: The musk gland, testis and blood samples of musk rats are collected in both breeding and non-breeding seasons. Some part of the samples are kept in liquid nitrogen for transcriptome analysis and Western blotting test. Some part of the samples are kept in 70% alcohol for histology experiment, blood samples are kept at -20 °C for the serum testosterone measurement experiment. RESULTS: This study demonstrates that the quantity of secreted musk, the volume of the musk glands, the diameter of the gland cells and AR expression are all higher during the breeding season than at other times (p < 0.01). StAR, P450scc and 3ß-HSD expression in the Leydig cells of the testis were also higher during this season, as was serum testosterone. AR was also observed in the gland cells of two other musk-secreting animals, the musk deer and small Indian civet, in their musk glands. These results suggest that the testes and musk glands co-develop seasonally. CONCLUSION: The musk glands' seasonal development and musk secretion are regulated by the testes, and testosterone plays an important role in the seasonal development of musk glands.

Seasonal gonadal development and age-related maturity patterns of introduced pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus Linnaeus, 1758) in a heated thermal reservoir and an adjacent river reach.

Testis and ovarian maturation status, maturity profile and gonado-somatic index (GSI) were assessed in pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) collected from Mirgenbach, a cooling-water reservoir associated with a nuclear power plant, and from the River Moselle 7km downstream of the reservoir's thermal outflow. Histological investigation indicated that in both sexes, gonadal development of pumpkinseed in the heated reservoir was more advanced than in the cooler Moselle River throughout the breeding season. The histological maturity profile of reservoir males ranked by the advancement of sperm cells was highly correlated with its GSI (rs=0.73, P<0.001). GSI of females in the reservoir increased with the stage at maturity, but GSI was not significantly correlated with total length, age or growth rate of the individual. All sampled individuals of both sexes were mature at age 1 in the heated reservoir, whereas 48% of age 1 males and 57% of age 1 females were not mature in the river. GSI patterns suggest that males in the reservoir adopted one of two reproductive strategies (nesters or cuckolders), whereas no small males with large enough testes to be considered cuckolders were apparent in the river. The warm thermal regime of Mirgenbach Reservoir led to precocial maturity, early season reproduction, and the greater prevalence of apparent cuckolder males than would normally occur in this climatic zone.

Life history and assessment of grapevine phylloxera leaf galling incidence on Vitis species in Uruguay.

Grapevine phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Phylloxeridae) is a worldwide pest of Vitis species. It has forms that feed on leaves and roots. Root forms predominate on Vitis vinifera (L.) cultivars, while leaf forms predominate on Vitis species from its native American range. Recently, high densities of D. vitifoliae infestations in leaves of V. vinifera in Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay have been reported. The aims of this study were to determine the seasonal development of grape phylloxera, quantify infestation levels on V. vinifera leaves, and compare them with infestation levels on leaves of a rootstock of American origin. Studies were conducted in two vineyards in Uruguay from 2004-2007. Terminal shoots of 3309 C and Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Tannat, Viognier, grafted onto resistant rootstock, were sampled weekly and leaves examined for gall presence and insect life stage. First galls were detected in early October; eggs began to appear within two weeks. Two oviposition peaks occurred by the end of December, and they coincided with bursts of shoot growth. On 3309C rootstock, oviposition peaks were more frequent than on the European cultivars. Based on thermal accumulation, D. vitifoliae could complete eight generations a year in Uruguay. Rootstock 3309C suffered the greatest damage but in some cases was similar to the European cultivars. Damage to Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Viognier were also high. There were no galls on Tannat. The 2005-2006 season was characterized by low infestation rates caused by a prolonged drought that affected vegetative growth. There were also differences between vineyards, where the vigorous plants suffering more damage. Leaf galling phylloxera incidence and damage were mainly associated to the cultivar but plant vigor and environmental factors also contributed to increase the incidence.

Timing of life cycles in a seasonal environment: the temperature-dependence of embryogenesis and diapause in a grasshopper (Chorthippus brunneus Thunberg).

The durations of the stages in the embryonic development of Chorthippus brunneus (Thunberg) have been estimated at constant temperatures of 20° C and 30° C. There was stage-dependent variation in the temperaturedependence of morphogenesis-a pattern apparently not previously described. The earliest and latest stages of morphogenesis proceeded relatively rapidly at higher temperatures. But intermediate stages, which would tend to occur around the diapause stage in a temperate winter, proceeded relatively rapidly at lower temperatures, as did diapause development. At a given temperature, there was individual variation between eggs such that some developed consistently faster than others. However, these intrinsic differences could be altered by exposure to diapause-breaking conditions at different morphological stages. The results are discussed in terms of their adaptive significance, their effect on population dynamics in a seasonal environment, and their implications for the nature of diapause in insects generally.