Long-acting bulleyaconitine A microspheres via intra-articular delivery for multidimensional therapy of rheumatoid arthritis.

Bulleyaconitine A (BLA) is a promising candidate for treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with diverse pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic and bone repair. Herein, the long-acting bulleyaconitine A microspheres (BLA-MS) were developed to treat RA comprehensively by forming drug reservoirs in joint cavities. The BLA-MS were prepared by emulsion/solvent evaporation method. The particle size and distribution were assessed by SEM. The crystalline state was investigated by DSC and PXRD. The drug loading (DL), encapsulation efficiency (EE) and cumulative release in vitro were determined by HPLC. The DL and EE were 23.93 ± 0.38 % and 95.73 ± 1.56 % respectively, and the cumulative release was up to 69 days with a stable release curve. The pharmacodynamic results in collagen induced arthritis (CIA) rats showed a noticeable reduction in paw thickness (5.66 ± 0.32 mm), and the decreasing expression level of PGE2, TNF-α and IL-6 which diminished the infiltration of inflammatory cells, thereby alleviating the progression of erosion and repairing the damaged bones (BV/TV (Bone Volume / Total Volume): 81.97 %, BS/BV (Bone Surface / Bone Volume): 6.08 mm-1). In conclusion, intra-articular injection of BLA-MS should have a promising application in the treatment of RA and may achieve clinical transformation in the future.

Aconitine linoleate, a natural lipo-diterpenoid alkaloid, stimulates anti-proliferative activity reversing doxorubicin resistance in MCF-7/ADR breast cancer cells as a selective topoisomerase IIα inhibitor.

Aconitine linoleate (1) is a lipo-diterpenoid alkaloid, isolated from Aconitum sinchiangense W. T. Wang. The study aimed at investigating the anti-proliferative efficacy and the underlying mechanisms of 1 against MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cells, as well as obvious the safety evaluation in vivo. The cytotoxic activities of 1 were measured in vitro. Also, we investigated the latent mechanism of 1 by cell cycle analysis in MCF-7/ADR cells and topo I and topo IIα inhibition assay. Molecular docking is done by Discovery Studio 3.5 and Autodock vina 1.1.2. Finally, the acute toxicity of 1 was detected on mice. 1 exhibited significant antitumor activity against both MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cells, with IC50 values of 7.58 and 7.02 µM, which is 2.38 times and 5.05 times more active, respectively than etoposide in both cell lines, and being 9.63 times more active than Adriamycin in MCF-7/ADR cell lines. The molecular docking and the topo inhibition test found that it is a selective inhibitor of topoisomerase IIα. Moreover, activation of the damage response pathway of the DNA leads to cell cycle arrest at the G0G1 phase. Furthermore, the in vivo acute toxicity of 1 in mice displayed lower toxicity than aconitine, with LD50 of 2.2 × 105 nmol/kg and only slight pathological changes in liver and lung tissue, 489 times safer than aconitine. In conclusion, compared with aconitine, 1 has more significant anti-proliferative activity against MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cells and greatly reduces in vivo toxicity, which suggests this kind of lipo-alkaloids is powerful and promising antitumor compounds for breast cancer.

The Role of α7nAChR-Mediated Cholinergic Anti-Inflammatory Pathway in Vagal Nerve Regulated Atrial Fibrillation.

The aim was to investigate the role of the α7nAChR-mediated cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in vagal nerve regulated atrial fibrillation (AF).18 beagles (standard dogs for testing) were used in this study, and the effective refractory period (ERP) of atrium and pulmonary veins and AF inducibility were measured hourly during rapid atrial pacing at 800 beats/minute for 6 hours in all beagles. After cessation of 3 hours of RAP, the low-level vagal nerve stimulation (LL-VNS) group (n = 6) was given LL-VNS and injection of salinne (0.5 mL/GP) into four GPs, the methyllycaconitine (MLA, the antagonist of α7nAChR) group (n = 6) was given LL-VNS and injection of MLA into four GPs, and the Control group (n = 6) was given saline into four GPs and the right cervical vagal nerve was exposed without stimulation. Then, the levels of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), acetylcholine (ACh), STAT3, and NF-κB proteins were measured. During the first 3 hours of RAP, the ERPs gradually decreased while the dispersion of ERPs (dERPs) and AF inducibility gradually increased in all three groups. During the last 3 hours of 6 hours' RAP in this study, the ERPs in the LL-VNS group were higher, while the dERPs and AF inducibility were significantly lower when compared with the Control and MLA groups at the same time points. The levels of ACh in the serum and atrium in the LL-VNS and MLA groups were higher than in the Control group, and the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were higher in the Control and MLA groups than in the LL-VNS group. The concentrations of STAT3 in RA and LA tissues were higher in the LL-VNS group while those of NF-κB were lower.In conclusion, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway mediated by α7nACh plays an important role in low-level vagal nerve-regulated AF.

Cytotoxic Effects of Mesaconitine, the Aconitum carmichaelii Debx Bioactive Compound, on HBEC-5i Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells: Role of Ca2+ Signaling-Mediated Pathway.

Mesaconitine, one of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx bioactive compounds, was shown to evoke Ca2+ homeostasis and its related physiological effects in endothelial cell types. However, the effect of mesaconitine on Ca2+ signaling and cell viability in human brain microvascular endothelial cells is unclear. This study focused on exploring whether mesaconitine changed cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i), affected cell viability, and established the relationship between Ca2+ signaling and viability in HBEC-5i human brain microvascular endothelial cells. In HBEC-5i cells, cell viability was measured by the cell proliferation reagent (WST-1). [Ca2+]i was measured by the Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dye fura-2. Mesaconitine (10-100 µM) concentration dependently induced [Ca2+]i rises. Ca2+ removal reduced the signal by approximately 25%. Mesaconitine (40-100 µM) caused cytotoxicity in HBEC-5i cells. This cytotoxic response was significantly reversed by chelation of cytosolic Ca2+ with BAPTA/AM. In Ca2+-containing medium, mesaconitine-induced Ca2+ entry was inhibited by 25% by modulators of store-operated Ca2+ channels and protein kinase C (PKC). Furthermore, mesaconitine also induced Mn2+ influx suggesting of Ca2+ entry. In Ca2+-free medium, treatment with the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump inhibitor thapsigargin abolished mesaconitine-evoked [Ca2+]i rises. Conversely, treatment with mesaconitine abolished thapsigargin-evoked [Ca2+]i rises. Inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC) with U73122 abolished mesaconitine-induced [Ca2+]i rises. In sum, mesaconitine caused cytotoxicity that was triggered by preceding [Ca2+]i rises. Furthermore, mesaconitine induced [Ca2+]i rises by evoking Ca2+ entry via PKC-sensitive store-operated Ca2+ channels and PLC-dependent Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum. It suggests that Ca2+ signaling have a potential cytotoxic effect on mesaconitine-treated human brain microvascular endothelial cells.

Activation of α7nACh receptor protects against acute pancreatitis through enhancing TFEB-regulated autophagy.

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is associated with impaired acinar cell autophagic flux, intracellular zymogen activation, cell necrosis and inflammation. Activation of the cholinergic system of vagus nerve has been shown to attenuate AP, but the effect of organ-intrinsic cholinergic system on pancreatitis remains unknown. In this study, we aim to examine the effect of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) stimulation within the pancreas during AP. In vivo, AP was induced by caerulein plus LPS or ethanol plus palmitoleic acid in mice. In vitro, pancreatic acini were isolated and subjected to cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulation. Mice or acini were pre-treated with PNU-282987 (selective α7nAChR agonist) or methyllycaconitine citrate salt (selective α7nAChR antagonist). Pancreatitis severity, acinar cell injury, autophagic flux, and transcription factor EB (TFEB) pathway were analyzed. Both caerulein plus LPS in vivo and CCK in vitro led to an up-regulation of α7nAChR, indicating activation of pancreas-intrinsic α7nAChR signaling during AP. PNU-282987 decreased acinar cell injury, trypsinogen activation and pancreatitis severity. Conversely, methyllycaconitine citrate salt increased acinar cell injury and aggravated AP. Moreover, activation of α7nAChR by PNU-282987 promoted autophagic flux as indicated by reduced p62, increased LysoTracker staining and decreased number of autolysosomes with undegraded contents. Furthermore, PNU-282987 treatment significantly increased TFEB activity in pancreatic acinar cells. α7nAChR activation also attenuated pancreatic inflammation and NF-κB activation. Our results showed that activation of α7nAChR protected against experimental pancreatitis through enhancing TFEB-mediated acinar cell autophagy, suggesting that activation of pancreas-intrinsic α7nAChR may serve as an endogenous protective mechanism during AP.

Bulleyaconitine A Inhibits Visceral Nociception and Spinal Synaptic Plasticity through Stimulation of Microglial Release of Dynorphin A.

Background: Visceral pain is one of the most common types of pain and particularly in the abdomen is associated with gastrointestinal diseases. Bulleyaconitine A (BAA), isolated from Aconitum bulleyanum, is prescribed in China to treat chronic pain. The present study is aimed at evaluating the mechanisms underlying BAA visceral antinociception. Methods: The rat model of chronic visceral hypersensitivity was set up by colonic perfusion of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) on postnatal day 10 with coapplication of heterotypic intermittent chronic stress (HeICS). Results: The rat model of chronic visceral hypersensitivity exhibited remarkable abdominal withdrawal responses and mechanical hyperalgesia in hind paws, which were dose-dependently attenuated by single subcutaneous of administration of BAA (30 and 90 µg/kg). Pretreatment with the microglial inhibitor minocycline, dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist totally blocked BAA-induced visceral antinociception and mechanical antihyperalgesia. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) in spinal dorsal horn lamina II neurons were recorded by using whole-cell patch clamp. Its frequency (but not amplitude) from TNBS-treated rats was remarkably higher than that from naïve rats. BAA (1 µM) significantly reduced the frequency of sEPSCs from TNBS-treated rats but not naïve rats. BAA-inhibited spinal synaptic plasticity was blocked by minocycline, the dynorphin A antiserum, and κ-opioid receptor antagonist. Dynorphin A also inhibited spinal synaptic plasticity in a κ-opioid receptor-dependent manner. Conclusions: These results suggest that BAA produces visceral antinociception by stimulating spinal microglial release of dynorphin A, which activates presynaptic κ-opioid receptors in afferent neurons and inhibits spinal synaptic plasticity, highlighting a novel interaction mode between microglia and neurons.

Delivery of benzoylaconitine using biodegradable nanoparticles to suppress inflammation via regulating NF-κB signaling.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a kind of systemic autoimmune disease, and patients with RA usually suffer serious pain, resulting in low quality of life. The development of drug delivery systems (DDSs) provides a valid approach for RA therapy via inhibiting the secretion of inflammatory cytokines from macrophages. As a prevailing drug nanocarrier with distinctive superiority, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted much attention in recent years. However, low biocompatibility and limited exploitation of drug with high efficiency are still the main challenges in RA treatment. To overcome the limitations, we prepared a biocompatible copolymer methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (mPEG-PLGA). Moreover, benzoylaconitine (BAC) with superior anti-inflammatory effect was selected as model drug. It was isolated from Aconitum kusnezoffii Reichb and encapsulated into mPEG-PLGA NPs (NP/BAC) to increase the bioavailablity of BAC. The NPs exhibited high cytocompatibility for activated macrophages and well compatibility with red blood cells. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory property of NP/BAC was testified by substantially inhibiting secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The TNF-α and IL-1ß cytokines of NP/BAC group reduced 70 % and 66 % compared with that of activated macrophages. Especially, NP/BAC reduced the overexpression of NF-κB p65 to inhibit NF-κB signaling pathway, which was a critical regulator of inflammatory responses. NP/BAC also showed efficient in vivo anti-inflammatory effect with high ear (69.8 %) and paw (87.1 %) swelling suppressing rate. These results revealed the anti-inflammatory mechanism of NP/BAC and proved it was a suitable DDS to suppress inflammation, providing a promising strategy for RA therapy and research of Aconitum kusnezoffii Reichb.

Pharmacokinetic effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on aconitine, benzoylaconine and aconine by UHPLC-MS/MS.

Ginseng and aconite are well-known couplet medicinals. Ginsenoside Rg1 is the main active ingredient in ginseng, and aconitine (AC), benzoylaconine (BAC) and aconine (ACN) are three representative alkaloids in aconite, which belong to the diester alkaloids, monoester alkaloids and alkanolamine alkaloids respectively. The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on the three types of alkaloids and to provide evidences for their compatibility mechanism. In this study, the ginsenoside Rg1 was simultaneously intragastrically administered to rats with AC, BAC and ACN, respectively, and the rat plasma was collected at different time points. The plasma drug concentrations of the three types of alkaloids were determined by UHPLC-MS/MS, and the pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated. The results indicated that the peak concentration and area under the concentration-time curve of BAC were significantly increased (P < 0.05), those for AC were decreased (P < 0.05), and the values for ACN did not change after pretreatment with ginsenoside Rg1. It was inferred that ginsenoside Rg1 may affect the absorption and metabolism of AC and BAC and then change their pharmacokinetic parameters. Subsequently, their absorption and metabolism were further investigated using the Caco-2 cell monolayer and rat liver microsomes in vitro. The Caco-2 cell monolayer absorption assay indicated that ginsenoside Rg1 could promote the absorption of AC and BAC, and the rat liver microsomes metabolism assay indicated that ginsenoside Rg1 accelerated the metabolism of AC and did not affect the other two alkaloids. All of the results indicated that ginsenoside Rg1 may reduce the toxicity of aconite and improve its efficacy by promoting the absorption of BAC and accelerating the metabolism of AC. These results could provide evidence for the compatibility mechanism of the traditional Chinese herbal formula Shenfu Decoction.

Lappaconitine trifluoroacetate contained polyvinyl alcohol nanofibrous membranes: Characterization, biological activities and transdermal application.

Lappaconitine (LA), a potent analgesic drug extracted from the root of natural aconitum species, has been clinically used for years because of its effectiveness and non-addictive properties. However, it is mainly limited in oral and intravenous administration in the form of Lappaconitine Hydrobromide (LAH). In this work, Lappaconitine trifluoroacetate (LAF), a new derivative of LA, was successfully obtained by introducing organofluorine group to LA. This new compound had a lower toxicity (LD50 of 21.14 mg·kg-1), improved analgesic effect and longer half-life (T1/2 of 2.24 h) when compared with LAH. Moreover, in vitro transdermal permeation (Jss of 206.82 µg·cm-2·h-1) of LAF was 30.54% higher than that of LAH, means that LAF can be conveniently used for transdermal drug delivery (TDD). Therefore, drug membranes with PVA solution (10 wt%) containing LAF in various amounts were fabricated by electrospinning. The in vitro release tests confirmed that up to 81.43% of LAF in the PVA/LAF nanofibrous membranes could be released in 72 h, accompanied by significant analgesic effect when compared with the blank control group. In conclusion, the prepared LAF-loaded membrane is a novel formulation for the treatment of chronic and long-term pain.

Nicotine attenuates concanavalin A-induced liver injury in mice by regulating the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in Kupffer cells.

Nicotine, a potent parasympathomimetic alkaloid, manifests anti-inflammatory properties by activating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). In this study, we evaluated the effects of nicotine on concanavalin A (ConA)-induced autoimmune hepatitis. Nicotine (0.5 and 1 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered to BALB/c mice and mice were intravenously injected with ConA (15 mg/kg) to induce hepatitis. The results showed that nicotine treatment ameliorated pathological lesions in livers and significantly suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the livers. Such effects were mediated by inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling in livers. Interestingly, nicotine inhibited the ConA-induced inflammatory response in primary cultured Kupffer cells (KCs) but did not alter the proliferation of splenocytes. The protective effects of nicotine against ConA-induced hepatitis were abolished in KC-depleted mice, indicating the requirement of KCs in this process. Additionally, the expression of α7-nAChR on KCs was dramatically increased by nicotine treatment, and the protective effects of nicotine on ConA-induced liver injury were significantly suppressed by treatment with methyllycaconitine (MLA), a specific α7-nAChR antagonist. Consistently, in primary cultured KCs, the activation of NF-κB signaling was also regulated by nicotine treatment. This study suggests that nicotine increases α7-nAChR-mediated cholinergic activity in KCs resulting in decrease of ConA-induced autoimmune hepatitis through inhibiting NF-κB signaling.

Novel nanostructured lipid carriers-loaded dissolving microneedles for controlled local administration of aconitine.

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) can enhance the safe transdermal delivery system of drugs. Moreover, dissolving microneedles (MNs) can enhance the permeability and controlled drug release. In this study, NLCs were formulated as a suitable vehicle for aconitine (ACO) delivery to effectively inhibit the inflammation of fibroblast-like synoviocytes isolated from a rat model of adjuvant-induced arthritis (AA-FLS). To improve drug delivery, the ACO-loaded NLCs (ACO-NLCs) were embedded in polyvinylpyrrolidone-based dissolving MNs fabricated by an ultraviolet cross-linking method. The nanoparticles maintained good physical stability in the dissolving MNs. The insertion capabilities of the ACO-NLCs-MNs were determined by observing histological sections of the skin after insertion, and scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the changes in the MNs over time. In vivo microdialysis showed that the NLCs-MNs enhanced the transdermal delivery of ACO through disrupting the barrier function of the stratum corneum (SC) and releasing the drug continuously. The ACO-NLCs-MNs showed a significant inhibitory effect on the paw swelling and inflammation in AA model rats. Moreover, this dual approach involving NLCs-loaded dissolving MNs formed a drug reservoir and effectively improved the ACO-induced arrhythmia. These results indicate that NLCs-containing MNs could be promising systems for the effective transdermal delivery and controlled local administration of ACO.

Quantitative determination of talatisamine and its pharmacokinetics and bioavailability in mouse plasma by UPLC-MS/MS.

Talatisamine, as the efficacy ingredient of Aconitum, was known as a novel specific blocker for the delayed rectifier K+ channels in rat hippocampal neurons. In this study, a rapid, selective and reproducible UPLC-MS/MS separation method was established and fully validated for the quantitative determination of talatisamine levels in ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) mouse blood. A total of 24 healthy male ICR mice were divided into four groups that was administered talatisamine via intravenous at a dose of 1 mg/kg and oral administration of three doses (2, 4, 8 mg/kg). All blood samples were protein precipitate by using acetonitrile with an internal standard (IS) deltaline. The effective chromatographic separation was carried out through an UPLC BEH C18 analytical column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 µm) with an initial mobile phase that consisted of acetonitrile and 10 mmol/L ammonium acetate aqueous solution (containing 0.1% formic acid) with a gradient elution pumped at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. Also, an electrospray ionization (ESI) was applied to quantify the talatisamine in the positive ions mode. The method validation demonstrated good linearity over the range of 1-1000 ng/mL (r2 ≥ 0.9993) for talatisamine in mouse blood with a lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) at 1 ng/mL. The accuracy values of the method were within 89.4% to 113.3%, and the matrix effects were between 103.2% and 106.3%. The mean extraction recoveries for talatisamine obtained from four concentrations of QC blood samples were exceeded 71.7%, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) both of intra- and inter-day precision values for replicate quality control samples did not exceed 15% respectively for all analytes during the assay validation. This method was successfully applied to the evaluation of the pharmacokinetic of talatisamine, regardless of intragastric or intravenous administration in mice. Based on the pharmacokinetics data, the bioavailability of talatisamine in mice was >65.0% after oral administration, exhibiting an excellent oral absorption.

Quantification of Lappaconitine in Mouse Blood by UPLC-MS/MS and Its Application to a Pharmacokinetic Study.

Lappaconitine is extracted from Aconitum sinomontanum Nakai, which belongs to the Ranunculaceae. Lappaconitine is as a diterpenoid alkaloid used as a nonaddictive analgesic. To assure the rational use of the drug, ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was conducted to determine lappaconitine in mouse blood and its application to pharmacokinetics. In this study, khasianine was used as internet standard (IS). A UPLC BEH C18 column was used for chromatographic separation and the mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile and 10 mmol/L ammonium acetate (0.1% formic acid). The flow rate of was 0.4 mL/min. Quantitative detection was performed in a multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode using an electrospray ionization source in positive mode. Twenty-four mice were randomly divided into four groups, three of which received 2, 4, and 8 mg/kg lappaconitine by intragastric administration, while the other group received 1 mg/kg lappaconitine by intravenous administration. After 0.0833, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, and 8 h, blood samples were collected and acetonitrile was used for protein precipitation. A linear calibration relationship (R2 = 0.9979) in the range of 0.1-500 ng/mL in mouse blood indicated good results. The lower limit of quantitation was 0.1 ng/mL and the limit of detection was 0.04 ng/mL. The intra-day and inter-day precision were below 13% and 14%, respectively. The accuracy was 90.1-107.2%, and the recovery exceeded 81.1%. The matrix effect ranged between 102.1 and 108.8%. The absolute bioavailability of lappaconitine was 2.0%. UPLC-MS/MS achieved high sensitivity, speed, and selectivity. Methodological verification indicated this method as suitable for determination of lappaconitine in mouse blood.

Effects of liquorice on pharmacokinetics of aconitine in rats.

Aconite alkaloids are the main bioactive ingredients existing in Aconitum, for instance aconitine (AC), which exhibit potent analgesic, antirheumatic and other pharmacological effects. In this study, effects of long-term treatment with liquorice on pharmacokinetics of AC in rats were investigated. Pharmacokinetics of AC after oral administration of AC at 1.5 mg/kg either with pre-treatment of liquorice water extracts at 0.433 or 1.299 g/kg (crude drug), respectively, for one week or not were studied. Additionally, LS-180 cells and human primary hepatocytes were utilized to explore the potential effects of bioactive ingredients of liquorice on P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and Cytochromes P450 (CYPs), respectively. The results revealed that exposure of AC after pre-treatment with liquorice was altered remarkably. Area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) decreased from 161 ± 37.8 to 58.8 ± 8.97 and 44.7 ± 8.20 ng/mL*h, respectively. Similarly, Cmax decreased from 26.2 ± 5.19 to 11.8 ± 1.15 and 6.86 ± 0.600 ng/mL, respectively. In addition, expressions of CYPs of human primary hepatocytes were enhanced to various contents after induction. Moreover, accumulation of AC and hypaconitine (HA), not mesaconitine (MA) inside of LS-180 cells were reduced after pre-treatment by comparison with control. In conclusion, the exposure of AC in vivo declined after pre-treatment with liquorice extract, which may be highly associated with upregulated expression and/or function of CYPs and P-gp.

Antiviral activity of aconite alkaloids from Aconitum carmichaelii Debx.

Four diterpenoid alkaloids, namely, (a) hypaconitine, (b) songorine, (c) mesaconitine and (d) aconitine, were isolated from the ethanol root extract of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx. The antiviral activities of these alkaloids against tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) were evaluated. Antiviral activity test in vivo showed that compounds a and c, which were C19-diterpenoid alkaloids, showed inactivation efficacy values of 82.4 and 85.6% against TMV at 500 µg/mL, respectively. By contrast, compound c presented inactivation activity of 52.1% against CMV at 500 µg/mL, which was almost equal to that of the commercial Ningnanmycin (87.1% inactivation activity against TMV and 53.8% inactivation activity against CMV). C19-Diterpenoid alkaloids displayed moderate to high antiviral activity against TMV and CMV at 500 µg/mL, dosage plays an important role in antiviral activities. This paper is the first report on the evolution of aconite diterpenoid alkaloids for antiviral activity against CMV.

Inhibitory effects of lappaconitine on the neuronal isoforms of voltage-gated sodium channels.

Lappaconitine (LA) has been widely used for postoperative and cancer pain control. LA exhibits excellent analgesic activity with a longer effective time than common local anesthetics such as tetracaine and bupivacaine. However, the mechanisms underlying the featured analgesic activity of LA remain largely unknown. Here, we report that LA is an inhibitor of voltage-gated sodium channel 1.7 (Nav1.7) stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. LA inhibited Nav1.7 in a voltage-dependent manner with an IC50 value (with 95% confidence limits) of 27.67 (15.68-39.66) µmol/L when the cell was clamped at -70 mV. In comparison with the quick and reversible inhibition of Nav1.7 by tetracaine and bupivacaine, the inhibitory effect of LA was rather slow and irreversible. It took more than 10 min to achieve steady-state inhibition when LA (300 µmol/L) was administered. Unlike tetracaine and bupivacaine, LA affected neither the voltage-dependent activation nor the inactivation of the channels. Five residues in domain III and domain IV have been reported to be critical for the effects of the two local anesthetics on Nav channels. But our mutant study revealed that only two residues (F1737, N1742) located in domain IV were necessary for the inhibitory activity of LA. The slow onset, irreversibility, and lack of influence on channel activation and inactivation accompanied with the different molecular determinants suggest that LA may inhibit Nav1.7 channels in a manner different from local anesthetics. These results may help to understand the featured analgesic activity of LA, thus benefiting its application in the clinic and future drug development.

The expression, localization and function of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in rat corpus cavernosum.

OBJECTIVES: Alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR), an emerging pharmacological target for a variety of medical conditions, is expressed in the most mammalian tissues with different effects. So, this study was designed to investigate the expression, localization and effect of α7-nAChR in rat corpus cavernosum (CC). METHODS & KEY FINDINGS: Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) revealed that α7-nAChR was expressed in rat CC and double immunofluorescence studies demonstrated the presence of α7-nAChR in corporal neurons. The rat CC segments were mounted in organ bath chambers and contracted with phenylephrine (0.1 µm -300 µm) to investigate the relaxation effect of electrical field stimulation (EFS,10 Hz) assessed in the presence of guanethidine (adrenergic blocker, 5 µm) and atropine (muscarinic cholinergic blocker, 1 µm) to obtain non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) response. Cumulative administration of nicotine significantly potentiated the EFS-induced NANC relaxation (-log EC50 = 7.5 ± 0.057). Whereas, the potentiated NANC relaxation of nicotine was significantly inhibited with different concentrations of methyllycaconitine citrate (α7-nAChR antagonist, P < 0.05) in preincubated strips. L-NAME (non-specific nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, 1 µm) completely blocked the neurogenic relaxation induced by EFS plus nicotine. CONCLUSION: To conclude α7-nAChR is expressed in rat CC and modulates the neurogenic relaxation response to nicotine.

[Effects of lappaconitine on pain and inflammatory response of severely burned rats and the mechanism].

Objective: To explore the effects of lappaconitine (LA) on pain and inflammatory response of severely burned rats and the mechanism. Methods: Forty SD rats were divided into healthy+ normal saline group, sham injury+ normal saline group, pure burn group, burn+ LA group, and healthy+ LA group according to the random number table (the same dividing method below), with 8 rats in each group. Rats in pure burn and burn+ LA groups were inflicted with about 32% total body surface area deep partial-thickness scald (hereinafter referred to as burn) on the back and right hind. Rats in sham injury+ normal saline group were sham injured. Rats in burn+ LA group were intraperitoneally injected with 1 g/L LA solution in the dosage of 4 mL/kg at 2.0 h before injury and post injury hour (PIH) 0 (immediately), 24.0, 48.0, and 72.0. Rats in healthy+ LA group were intraperitoneally injected with LA solution in the same dose at the same time points as above, and rats in healthy+ normal saline and sham injury+ normal saline groups were intraperitoneally injected with normal saline in the dose of 4 mL/kg at the same time points as above. At 1.5 h before injury and PIH 12.5, 24.5, 36.5, 48.5, and 72.5, the paw withdrawal mechanical threshold (PWMT) of injured rats was detected, and their pain behaviors were observed. The same observation and detection were conducted in rats without injury in the two groups at the same time points as above. Another 32 SD rats were divided into normal saline group, trinitrophenyl (TNP)-ATP group, minocyline group, pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2', 4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS) group, with 8 rats in each group, and all the rats were inflicted with the same burn injury as above. At PIH 48.0, rats in normal saline group were intrathecally injected with 10 µL normal saline; rats in TNP-ATP group were intrathecally injected with 10 µL TNP-ATP in the concentration of 30 nmol/µL; rats in minocyline group were intrathecally injected with 10 µL minocyline in the concentration of 5 g/L; rats in PPADS group were intrathecally injected with 10 µL PPADS in the concentration of 10 nmol/µL. The PWMT of rats was detected at 0.5 h before injection and 0.5 h after. At PIH 72.5, the tissue in the dorsal horn of spinal cord of rats in sham injury+ normal saline, pure burn, and burn+ LA groups was harvested to observe the co-expression of P2X(4) receptor and OX42 receptor with immunofluorescent staining and to observe the expression of P2X(4) receptor and count the positive cells with immunohistochemical staining. The venous blood was harvested for determination of serum content of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The same observation and determination were conducted in rats without injury in the two groups at the same time point as above. Data were processed with one-way analysis of variance, analysis of variance for repeated measurement, SNK test, paired t test, and Bonferroni correction. Results: (1) There were no abnormal activity in rats of healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, healthy+ LA groups at all time points. Until PIH 72.5, rats in pure burn group were in poor mental state; red and swollen manifestation and blister were observed in burn wounds on the back and right hind; imbalance in gait, lick, bite, and scratch were observed occasionally. Fewer behaviors such as lick, bite, and limp were observed in rats in burn+ LA group than in pure burn group, and the red and swollen manifestation in wounds of rats in burn+ LA group dissipated faster than that in pure burn group. (2) At 1.5 h before injury, there were no significant differences in the PWMT values of rats in healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, pure burn, burn+ LA, and healthy+ LA groups (F=0.106, P>0.05). PWMT values of rats in pure burn group were significantly lower than those in the other 4 groups at all post injury time points (with P values below 0.05). PWMT values of rats in burn+ LA group were significantly lower than those in healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, and healthy+ LA groups at all post injury time points (with P values below 0.05). (3) At 0.5 h before injection, PWMT values of rats in normal saline, TNP-ATP, PPADS, and minocyline groups were close, respectively 15.3±0.8, 15.1±1.0, 15.3±0.9, and 15.6±1.1 (F=0.343, P>0.05). At 0.5 h after injection, PWMT values of rats in normal saline group and PPADS group were respectively 15.2±1.2 and 14.8±1.0, which were significantly lower than 20.8±1.4 and 26.3±1.0 in TNP-ATP group and minocyline group respectively (with P values below 0.05). PWMT values of rats in normal saline and PPADS groups were similar before and after injection (with t values respectively 0.073 and -0.772, P values above 0.05), while those of rats in TNP-ATP and minocyline groups were higher after injection than before injection (with t values respectively -10.180 and -20.813, P values below 0.01). (4) At PIH 72.5, co-expression of P2X(4) receptor and OX42 receptor was observed in a few microglias of rats in healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, and healthy+ LA groups, while co-expression of P2X(4) receptor and OX42 receptor was observed in a large number of microglias of rats in pure burn and burn+ LA groups. At PIH 72.5, more P2X(4) receptor positive cells were observed in rats in pure burn group than in the other 4 groups (with P values below 0.05), and more P2X(4) receptor positive cells were observed in rats in burn+ LA group than in healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, and healthy+ LA groups (with P values below 0.05). (5) At PIH 72.5, the serum content of TNF-α and IL-1ß of rats in pure burn group was significantly higher than that in the other 4 groups (with P values below 0.001). The serum content of TNF-α and IL-1ß of rats in burn+ LA group was significantly lower than that in healthy+ normal saline, sham injury+ normal saline, and healthy+ LA groups (with P values below 0.001). Conclusions: LA has significant analgesic effects on severely burned rats, and it can ameliorate the excessive inflammational situation. The mechanism may be related to its inhibition of expression of P2X(4) receptor in microglias in the dorsal horn of spinal cord and reduction in the release of inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1ß.