A Humanized and Viable Animal Model for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia-CYP21A2-R484Q Mutant Mouse.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) is an autosomal recessive disorder impairing cortisol synthesis due to reduced enzymatic activity. This leads to persistent adrenocortical overstimulation and the accumulation of precursors before the blocked enzymatic step. The predominant form of CAH arises from mutations in CYP21A2, causing 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD). Despite emerging treatment options for CAH, it is not always possible to physiologically replace cortisol levels and counteract hyperandrogenism. Moreover, there is a notable absence of an effective in vivo model for pre-clinical testing. In this work, we developed an animal model for CAH with the clinically relevant point mutation p.R484Q in the previously humanized CYP21A2 mouse strain. Mutant mice showed hyperplastic adrenals and exhibited reduced levels of corticosterone and 11-deoxycorticosterone and an increase in progesterone. Female mutants presented with higher aldosterone concentrations, but blood pressure remained similar between wildtype and mutant mice in both sexes. Male mutant mice have normal fertility with a typical testicular appearance, whereas female mutants are infertile, exhibit an abnormal ovarian structure, and remain in a consistent diestrus phase. Conclusively, we show that the animal model has the potential to contribute to testing new treatment options and to prevent comorbidities that result from hormone-related derangements and treatment-related side effects in CAH patients.

Diurnal 11-ketotestosterone and 17-hydroxyprogesterone saliva profiles in paediatric classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES: The most suitable biochemical markers for therapy adjustment in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia are controversial. 11-Oxygenated androgens are a promising new approach. The objective of this study was to investigate the diurnal rhythm of 11-ketotestosterone in children and adolescents in saliva and to correlate it with salivary 17-hydroxyprogesterone. METHODS: Fifty-one samples of steroid day-profiles from 17 patients were additionally analysed for 11-ketotestosterone, retrospectively. All patients were treated in our university outpatient clinic for paediatric endocrinology between 2020 and 2022. Steroid day-profiles of 17 patients could be examined. The cohort showed a balanced sex ratio. The median age was 13 years. The measurements for 17-hydroxyprogesterone were carried out during routine care by immunoassay. The measurements of 11-ketotestosterone were performed from frozen saliva samples using an implemented in-house protocol for liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The most important outcome were the absolute values for 11-ketotestosterone, their diurnal rhythmicity and the correlation with 17-hydroxyprogesterone. RESULTS: Both steroids show a circadian diurnal rhythm. 17-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketotestosterone correlate significantly. 11-Ketotestosterone showed a positive correlation with BMI at all times of the day. CONCLUSIONS: 11-Ketotestosterone shows circadian rhythmicity in our cohort and correlates with 17-hydroxyprogesterone. These findings serve as an important basis for prospective research into 11-oxygenated androgens as therapeutic markers in paediatrics. However, 11-ketotestosterone appears to be very dependent on BMI.

Major immunophenotypic abnormalities in patients with primary adrenal insufficiency of different etiology.

Introduction: Patients with primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) suffer from increased risk of infection, adrenal crises and have a higher mortality rate. Such dismal outcomes have been inferred to immune cell dysregulation because of unphysiological cortisol replacement. As the immune landscape of patients with different types of PAI has not been systematically explored, we set out to immunophenotype PAI patients with different causes of glucocorticoid (GC) deficiency. Methods: This cross-sectional single center study includes 28 patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 27 after bilateral adrenalectomy due to Cushing's syndrome (BADx), 21 with Addison's disease (AD) and 52 healthy controls. All patients with PAI were on a stable GC replacement regimen with a median dose of 25 mg hydrocortisone per day. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from heparinized blood samples. Immune cell subsets were analyzed using multicolor flow cytometry after four-hour stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin. Natural killer (NK-) cell cytotoxicity and clock gene expression were investigated. Results: The percentage of T helper cell subsets was downregulated in AD patients (Th1 p = 0.0024, Th2 p = 0.0157, Th17 p < 0.0001) compared to controls. Cytotoxic T cell subsets were reduced in AD (Tc1 p = 0.0075, Tc2 p = 0.0154) and CAH patients (Tc1 p = 0.0055, Tc2 p = 0.0012) compared to controls. NKCC was reduced in all subsets of PAI patients, with smallest changes in CAH. Degranulation marker CD107a expression was upregulated in BADx and AD, not in CAH patients compared to controls (BADx p < 0.0001; AD p = 0.0002). In contrast to NK cell activating receptors, NK cell inhibiting receptor CD94 was upregulated in BADx and AD, but not in CAH patients (p < 0.0001). Although modulation in clock gene expression could be confirmed in our patient subgroups, major interindividual-intergroup dissimilarities were not detected. Discussion: In patients with different etiologies of PAI, distinct differences in T and NK cell-phenotypes became apparent despite the use of same GC preparation and dose. Our results highlight unsuspected differences in immune cell composition and function in PAI patients of different causes and suggest disease-specific alterations that might necessitate disease-specific treatment.

Evaluation of Ex Vivo Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Responsiveness of Human Fetal Testis.

Testicular adrenal rest tumors (TARTs), commonly occurring in males with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, may arise from chronic stimulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-sensitive cells in the testes. It is not yet established whether the human fetal testis (HFT) is responsive to ACTH. To investigate this, we cultured HFT tissue with and without ACTH for up to 5 days, and quantified adrenal steroid hormones and expression of adrenal steroidogenic enzymes. Fetal testis and adrenal tissue produced high levels of testosterone and cortisol, respectively, indicating viability. In contrast to fetal adrenal tissues, the expression of ACTH receptor MC2R was either absent or expressed at extremely low levels in ex vivo HFT tissue and no clear response to ACTH in gene expression or steroid hormone production was observed. Altogether, this study suggests that the HFT is unresponsive to ACTH, which would indicate that a TART does not arise from fetal testicular cells chronically exposed to ACTH in utero.

Molecular analysis of 12 Chinese patients with 11ß-hydroxylase deficiency and in vitro functional study of 20 CYP11B1 missense variants.

Steroid 11ß-hydroxylase deficiency (11ß-OHD) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by pathogenic variants of CYP11B1 gene. This study aimed to perform molecular analysis of a Chinese 11ß-OHD series and in vitro functional study of twenty CYP11B1 missense variants. Twelve Chinese patients with clinical diagnosis of 11ß-OHD were included in the study to analyze their molecular etiology. Genomic DNA of patients was extracted to be sequenced all coding exons and intronic flanking sequences of CYP11B1. Fourteen missense variants found in 12 patients mentioned above along with 6 missense variants previously reported by our team were evaluated functionally. Amino acid substitutions were analyzed with computational program to determine their effects on the three-dimensional structure of CYP11B1 protein. Clinical characteristics and hormone levels at baseline of the 18 patients carrying 18 missense variants aforementioned were recorded to perform genotype-phenotype correlation. A total of 21 rare variants including 9 novel and 12 recurrent ones were identified in 12 patients, out of which 17 were missense, 2 were nonsense, 1 was a splice site variant, and 1 was a deletion-insertion variant. Results of in vitro functional study revealed that 3 out of 20 missense mutants (p.Leu3Pro, p.Gly267Ser, and p.Ala367Ser) had partial enzyme activity and the other 17 had little enzymatic activity. The impairment degree of enzymatic activity in vitro functional study was also reflected in the severity degree of interaction change between the wild-type/mutant-type amino acid and its adjacent amino acids in three-dimensional model. In conclusion, the addition of 9 novel variants expands the spectrum of CYP11B1 pathogenic variants. Our results demonstrate that twenty CYP11B1 variants lead to impaired 11ß-hydroxylase activity in vitro. Visualizing these variants in the three-dimensional model structure of CYP11B1 protein can provide a plausible explanation for the results measured in vitro.

Metabotypes of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in infants determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in spot urine.

Biochemical monitoring of treatment in infants with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is not yet well defined. The aim of this study was to perform a cluster analysis of the urinary steroid metabolome for treatment monitoring of infants with classic salt-wasting CAH. We analyzed spot urine samples obtained from 60 young children ≤ 4 years of age (29 females) with classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency treated with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone by targeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Patients were classified into different groups according to their metabolic patterns (metabotypes) using unsupervised k-means clustering algorithms. Three metabotypes could be discovered. Metabotype #1 (N = 15 (25%)) showed high concentrations of androgen and 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) precursor steroids, metabotype #2 (N = 28 (47%)) revealed balanced metabolic control, and metabotype #3 (N = 17; 28%) demonstrated severe adrenal suppression with low concentrations of androgen and 17OHP precursor steroids. Daily hydrocortisone doses and urinary concentrations of cortisol and cortisone metabolites did not differ between all three metabotypes. Metabotype #2 had highest daily dose of fludrocortisone (p = 0.006). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that 11-ketopregnanetriol (area under the curve [AUC] 0.967) and pregnanetriol (AUC 0.936) were most suitable of separating metabotype #1 from #2. For separation between metabotypes #2 vs. #3, the 11-oxygenated androgen metabolite 11-hydroxyandrosterone (AUC 0.983) and the ratio of 11-hydroxyandrosterone to tetrahydrocortisone (AUC 0.970) were most suitable. In conclusion, GC-MS-based urinary steroid metabotyping is a new method to help monitor the treatment of infants with CAH. This method allows classification of under-, over- and adequately treated young children.

Visceral Adiposity Index as an Indicator of Cardiometabolic Risk in Patients with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

Aim: To evaluate the cardiometabolic risk in patients with CAH (21 (OH) enzyme deficiency) on the basis of the visceral adiposity index (VAI), which indicates dysfunction of the visceral adipose tissue (VAT). Materials and Methods: A total of 41 patients and 38 body mass index (BMI), age, and gender-matched healthy controls (HC) were included. The patients' and HCs' age, gender, waist circumference (WC), BMI information and total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), triglyceride (TG) values, smoking, and medication history were obtained from medical charts. Weight, height, WC, and blood pressure levels were measured. Patients' and HCs' BMI, Framingham risk scores (FRS), VAI and Ferriman-Gallwey scores were calculated. The patients' and HCs' age, gender TC, HDL, and TG, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEASO4), 17 hydroxyprogesterone (17(OH)P) values, smoking, and medication history were obtained from medical charts. Body fat and muscle mass levels were measured with Tanita T 6360. Results: Gender distribution, mean age, and BMI of patients with CAH were 34/7, 30 ± 8, 27 ± 5.4; HC subjects 30/8, 30 ± 6, 27 ± 3.8 (P = 0.9, 0.6, 0.9, respectively). The VAI values of patients with a diagnosis of CAH 3.7 (2.3-6.9) were found to be significantly higher than those of HC patients 2.5 (1.8-3.9; P = 0.02). The mean glucocorticoid doses of the patients were 17 ± 9 mg/day. The glucocorticoid dose level was determined as independent risk factor on the FRS (P = 0.03, ß = 0.04) and VAI (P = 0.018, ß = 0.17). Conclusion: Glucocorticoid dose optimization should be done more carefully to improve metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes in CAH patients.

Health status of children and young persons with congenital adrenal hyperplasia in the UK (CAH-UK): a cross-sectional multi-centre study.

Objective: There is limited knowledge on the onset of comorbidities in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) during childhood. We aimed to establish the health status of children with CAH in the UK. Design and methods: This cross-sectional multicentre study involved 14 tertiary endocrine UK units, recruiting 101 patients aged 8-18 years with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency and 83 controls. We analysed demographic, clinical and metabolic data, as well as psychological questionnaires (Strengths and Difficulties (SDQ), Paediatric Quality of Life (PedsQL)). Results: Patient height SDS in relation to mid-parental height decreased with age, indicating the discrepancy between height achieved and genetic potential height. Bone age was advanced in 40.5% patients, with a mean difference from the chronological age of 1.8 (±2.3) years. Patients were more frequently overweight (27%) or obese (22%) compared to controls (10.8% and 10.8%, respectively, P < 0.001). No consistent relationship between glucocorticoid dose and anthropometric measurements or hormonal biomarkers was detected. A small number of patients had raised total cholesterol (3.0%), low HDL (3.0%), raised LDL (7.0%) and triglycerides (5.0%). SDQ scores were within the 'high' and 'very high' categories of concern for 16.3% of patients. 'School functioning' was the lowest PedsQL scoring dimension with a median (interquartile range) of 70 (55-80), followed by 'emotional functioning' with a median of 75 (65-85). Conclusions: Our results show an increased prevalence of problems with growth and weight gain in CAH children and suggest reduced quality of life. This highlights the urgent need to optimise management and monitoring strategies to improve long-term health outcomes.

Epidemiology and Long-Term Adverse Outcomes in Korean Patients with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Nationwide Study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies on the epidemiology and complications of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) were conducted in Western countries and in children/adolescents. We aimed to explore the epidemiology of CAH, as well as the risk of comorbidities and mortality, in a Korean nationwide case-control study. METHODS: CAH patients (n=2,840) were included between 2002 and 2017 from the National Health Insurance Service database and the Rare Intractable Disease program. CAH patients were compared, at a 1:10 ratio, with age-, sex-, and index year-matched controls (n=28,400). RESULTS: The point prevalence of CAH patients in Korea was 1 in 18,745 persons in 2017. The annual incidence rate declined between 2003 and 2017 from 3.25 to 0.41 per 100,000 persons. CAH patients were at elevated risk for cardiovascular disease (odds ratio [OR], 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4 to 1.9), stroke (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.3 to 2.0), diabetes mellitus (OR, 2.8; 95% CI, 2.6 to 3.1), dyslipidemia (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 2.2 to 2.6), and psychiatric disorders (OR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.3 to 1.6). Fracture risk increased in CAH patients aged over 40 years (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1 to 1.7). CAH patients were at higher risk of mortality than controls (hazard ratio, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.3 to 2.0). CONCLUSION: Our nationwide study showed a recent decline in the incidence of CAH and an elevated risk for cardiovascular, metabolic, skeletal, and psychiatric disorders in CAH patients. Lifelong management for comorbidity risk is a crucial component of treating CAH patients.

Classic and current concepts in adrenal steroidogenesis: a reappraisal.

Adrenal steroid biosynthesis and its related pathology are constant evolving disciplines. In this paper, we review classic and current concepts of adrenal steroidogenesis, plus control mechanisms of steroid pathways, distribution of unique enzymes and cofactors, and major steroid families. We highlight the presence of a "mineralocorticoid (MC) pathway of zona fasciculata (ZF)", where most circulating corticosterone and deoxycorticosterone (DOC) originate together with 18OHDOC, under ACTH control, a claim based on functional studies in normal subjects and in patients with 11ß-, and 17α-hydroxylase deficiencies. We emphasize key differences between CYP11B1 (11ß-hydroxylase) and CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) and the onset of a hybrid enzyme - CYP11B1/CYP11B2 -, responsible for aldosterone formation in ZF under ACTH control, in "type I familial hyperaldosteronism" (dexamethasone suppressible). In "apparent MC excess syndrome", peripheral conversion of cortisol to cortisone is impaired by lack of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, permitting free cortisol access to MC receptors resulting in severe hypertension. We discuss two novel conditions involving the synthesis of adrenal androgens: the "backdoor pathway", through which dihydrotestosterone is formed directly from androsterone, being relevant for the fetoplacental setting and sexual differentiation of male fetuses, and the rediscovery of C19 11-oxygenated steroids (11-hydroxyandrostenedione and 11-ketotestosterone), active androgens and important markers of virilization in 21-hydroxylase deficiency and polycystic ovaries syndrome. Finally, we underline two enzyme cofactor deficiencies: cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase which partially affects 21- and 17α-hydroxylation, producing a combined clinical/hormonal picture and causing typical skeletal malformations (Antley-Bixler syndrome), and PAPSS2, coupled to SULT2A1, that promotes sulfation of DHEA to DHEAS, preventing active androgens to accumulate. Its deficiency results in reduced DHEAS and elevated DHEA and androgens with virilization. Future and necessary studies will shed light on remaining issues and questions on adrenal steroidogenesis.

Novel treatments for congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

Patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) need life-long medical treatment to replace the lacking glucocorticoids and potentially lacking mineralocorticoids and to lower elevated adrenal androgens. Long-term complications are common, including gonadal dysfunction, infertility, and cardiovascular and metabolic co-morbidity with reduced quality of life. These complications can be attributed to the exposure of supraphysiological dosages of glucocorticoids and the longstanding exposure to elevated adrenal androgens. Development of novel therapies is necessary to address the chronic glucocorticoid overexposure, lack of circadian rhythm in glucocorticoid replacement, and inefficient glucocorticoid delivery with concomitant periods of hyperandrogenism. In this review we aim to give an overview about the current treatment regimens and its limitations and describe novel therapies especially evaluated for 21OHD patients.

Classic and current concepts in adrenal steroidogenesis: a reappraisal

ABSTRACT Adrenal steroid biosynthesis and its related pathology are constant evolving disciplines. In this paper, we review classic and current concepts of adrenal steroidogenesis, plus control mechanisms of steroid pathways, distribution of unique enzymes and cofactors, and major steroid families. We highlight the presence of a "mineralocorticoid (MC) pathway of zona fasciculata (ZF)", where most circulating corticosterone and deoxycorticosterone (DOC) originate together with 18OHDOC, under ACTH control, a claim based on functional studies in normal subjects and in patients with 11β-, and 17α-hydroxylase deficiencies. We emphasize key differences between CYP11B1 (11β-hydroxylase) and CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) and the onset of a hybrid enzyme - CYP11B1/CYP11B2 -, responsible for aldosterone formation in ZF under ACTH control, in "type I familial hyperaldosteronism" (dexamethasone suppressible). In "apparent MC excess syndrome", peripheral conversion of cortisol to cortisone is impaired by lack of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, permitting free cortisol access to MC receptors resulting in severe hypertension. We discuss two novel conditions involving the synthesis of adrenal androgens: the "backdoor pathway", through which dihydrotestosterone is formed directly from androsterone, being relevant for the fetoplacental setting and sexual differentiation of male fetuses, and the rediscovery of C19 11-oxygenated steroids (11-hydroxyandrostenedione and 11-ketotestosterone), active androgens and important markers of virilization in 21-hydroxylase deficiency and polycystic ovaries syndrome. Finally, we underline two enzyme cofactor deficiencies: cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase which partially affects 21- and 17α-hydroxylation, producing a combined clinical/hormonal picture and causing typical skeletal malformations (Antley-Bixler syndrome), and PAPSS2, coupled to SULT2A1, that promotes sulfation of DHEA to DHEAS, preventing active androgens to accumulate. Its deficiency results in reduced DHEAS and elevated DHEA and androgens with virilization. Future and necessary studies will shed light on remaining issues and questions on adrenal steroidogenesis.

Diagnosis, treatment and genetic analysis of 11ß -hydroxylase deficiency caused by CYP11B gene mutation.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an autosomal recessive hereditary disease, and the 11ß- hydroxylase deficiency is the second most common syndrome in different types of CAH. The occurrence of 11ß- hydroxylase deficiency is related to the mutation of CYP11B gene on human autosome 8. In this report, we detected the gene mutation sites of a 14-year-old patient with 11ß-hydroxylase deficiency by whole exon sequencing (WES), verified the suspected mutation by Sanger sequencing, and analyzed its characteristics. Gene sequencing revealed that homozygous missense mutation of c.1226C>T appeared on the 8th exon of CYP11B1 gene, which resulted in the mutation of the encoding protein Ser409 to phenylalanine (p. Ser409Phe), affecting the binding of heme and enzyme and resulting in the loss of CYP11B1 enzyme activity and a series of clinical symptoms. This mutation has not been reported at home and abroad. This case enriches the variation spectrum of CYP11B1 gene and provides clinical data and genetic resources for further research on the pathogenesis of 11ß-hydroxylase deficiency.

Increased Prevalence of Fractures in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Swedish Population-based National Cohort Study.

CONTEXT: Low bone mineral density has been reported in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), but the prevalence of fractures is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence of fractures in CAH. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Patients with CAH (n = 714, all 21-hydroxylase deficiency) were compared with controls matched for sex and year and place of birth (n = 71 400). Data were derived by linking National Population-Based Registers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number and type of fractures. RESULTS: Mean age was 29.8 ±â€…18.4 years. Individuals with CAH had more fractures compared to controls [23.5% vs 16.1%, odds ratio (OR) 1.61, 95% CI 1.35-1.91], and this was found in both sexes (females: 19.6% vs 13.3%, OR 1.57, 95% CI 1.23-2.02; males: 28.7% vs 19.6%, OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.29-2.12). Fractures were significantly increased in patients born before the introduction of neonatal screening but not in those born afterwards. Any major fracture associated with osteoporosis (spine, forearm, hip, or shoulder) was increased in all individuals with CAH (9.8% vs 7.5%, OR 1.34, 95% CI 1.05-1.72). The highest prevalence of fractures was seen in SV phenotype and I172N genotype while nonclassic phenotype and I2 splice genotype did not show increased prevalence. A transport accident as a car occupant and fall on the same level were more common in patients with CAH, both sexes, than in controls. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CAH had an increased prevalence of both any fracture and fractures associated with osteoporosis (both sexes) but not for patients neonatally screened. We conclude that fracture risk assessment and glucocorticoid optimization should be performed regularly.

Characteristics of Growth in Children With Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency During Adrenarche and Beyond.

CONTEXT: Patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) often do not achieve their full growth potential. Adrenarche may accelerate bone maturation and thereby result in decreased growth in CAH. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to analyze the impact of growth during adrenarche on final height of adequately treated classic CAH patients. METHODS: This retrospective, multicenter study (4 academic pediatric endocrinology centers) included 41 patients with classical CAH, born 1990-2012. We assessed skeletal maturation (bone age), growth velocity, and (projected) adult height outcomes, and analyzed potential influencing factors, such as sex, genotype, and glucocorticoid therapy. RESULTS: Patients with classic CAH were shorter than peers (-0.4 SDS ±â€…0.8 SD) and their parents (corrected final height -0.6 SDS ±â€…1.0 SD). Analysis of growth during adrenarche revealed 2 different growth patterns: patients with accelerating bone age (49%), and patients with nonaccelerating bone age relative to chronological age (BA-CA). Patients with accelerating BA-CA were taller than the normal population during adrenarche years (P = 0.001) and were predicted to achieve lower adult height SDS (-0.9 SDS [95% CI, -1.3; -0.5]) than nonaccelerating patients when assessed during adrenarche (0.2 SDS [95% CI, -0.3; 0.8]). Final adult height was similarly reduced in both accelerating and nonaccelerating BA-CA groups (-0.4 SDS [95% CI, -0.9; 0.1] vs -0.3 SDS [95% CI, [-0.8; 0.1]). CONCLUSION: Patients with and without significant bone age advancement, and thus differing height prediction during adrenarche, showed similar (predicted) final height when reassessed during pubertal years. Bone age alone should not be used during adrenarche as clinical marker for metabolic control in CAH treatment.

Clinical advances in the pharmacotherapy of congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: Patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia (21OHD-CAH) have poor health outcomes with increased mortality, short stature, impaired fertility, and increased cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity. To address this, there are therapies in development that target the clinical goal of treatment, which is to control excess androgens with an adrenal replacement dose of glucocorticoid. METHODS: Narrative review of publications on recent clinical developments in the pharmacotherapy of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. SUMMARY: Therapies in clinical development target different levels of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Two corticotrophin-releasing factor type 1 (CRF1) receptor antagonists, Crinecerfont and Tildacerfont, have been trialled in poorly controlled 21OHD-CAH patients, and both reduced ACTH and androgen biomarkers while patients were on stable glucocorticoid replacement. Improvements in glucocorticoid replacement include replacing the circadian rhythm of cortisol that has been trialled with continuous s.c. infusion of hydrocortisone and Chronocort, a delayed-release hydrocortisone formulation. Chronocort optimally controlled 21OHD-CAH in 80% of patients on an adrenal replacement dose of hydrocortisone, which was associated with patient-reported benefits including restoration of menses and pregnancies. Adrenal-targeted therapies include the steroidogenesis-blocking drug Abiraterone acetate, which reduced adrenal androgen biomarkers in poorly controlled patients. CONCLUSIONS: CRF1 receptor antagonists hold promise to avoid excess glucocorticoid replacement in patients not controlled on standard or circadian glucocorticoid replacement such as Chronocort. Gene and cell therapies are the only therapeutic approaches that could potentially correct both cortisol deficiency and androgen excess.

Long-Term Health Outcomes of Korean Adults With Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency.

There is a lack of studies regarding the long-term outcomes of Asian adults with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. We hypothesized that adults with CAH are at higher metabolic risk than their age-, and sex-matched controls. We further investigated the long-term health outcome-related factors in adults with CAH. We compared metabolic risk between adults with CAH (71 men, 93 women) and age-, and sex-matched controls (190 men, 261 women) from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. The presence of obesity, testicular adrenal rest tumors (TARTs), and menstrual irregularity was assessed. Hormone status and treatment regimens were compared according to the presence of adverse outcomes. The median age was 27.0 y and 28.0 y for men and women, respectively. Adults with CAH had a higher waist circumference (88.0 vs. 82.3 cm in men, and 83.5 vs. 72.3 cm in women), and blood pressure (125.0 vs. 113.0 mmHg in men, and 120.0 vs. 104.0 mmHg in women) than age- and sex-matched controls (P<0.05 for all). The 2.7-fold increased risk for hypertension (men) and 2.0-fold increased risk for obesity (women) was significant in patients with CAH (P<0.05 for both). Obese adults with CAH showed significantly higher adrenal limb thicknesses (men) and 17-hydroxyprogesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels (women) (P<0.05 for both). TARTs occurred in 58.1% of men and did not differ by hormone or treatment regimen. Irregular menstruation was observed in 57.1% of women, with higher dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in those with irregular periods. Adults with CAH had a higher metabolic risk than the general population. Poor disease control may increase their risk of metabolic morbidity and menstrual irregularity.

Aldosterone signaling defect in young infants: single-center report and review.

BACKGROUND: Aldosterone (Ald) is a crucial factor in maintaining electrolyte and water homeostasis. Defect in either its synthesis or function causes salt wasting (SW) manifestation. This disease group is rare, while most reported cases are sporadic. This study aimed to obtain an overview of the etiology and clinical picture of patients with the above condition and report our rare cases. METHODS: A combination of retrospective review and case studies was conducted at the Pediatric Endocrine unit of The First Affiliated Hospital Sun Yat Sen University from September 1989 to June 2020. RESULTS: A total of 187 patients with SW were enrolled, of which 90.4% (n = 169) were diagnosed with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). SW type 21-hydroxylase deficiency accounted for 98.8% (n = 167) of CAH diagnosis, while 1.2% (n = 2) was of lipoid CAH. Non-CAH comprised 9.6% (n = 18) of the total patients whose etiologies included SF-1 gene mutation (n = 1), X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita (n = 9), aldosterone synthase deficiency (ASD, n = 4), and pseudo-hypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA1, n = 1). Etiologies were not identified in three patients. All of patients with ASD and PHA1 exhibited SW syndrome in their early neonatal period. DNA sequencing showed mutations of CYP11B2 for P1-P4 and NR3C2 for P5. P1 and P2 were sibling brothers affected by compound heterozygous mutations of c.1121G > A (p.R374Q) and c.1486delC p.(L496fs); likewise, P4 was identified with compound heterozygous mutations of c.1200 + 1G > A and c.240-1 G > T; meanwhile P3 demonstrated c.1303G > A p.(G435S) homozygous mutation in CYP11B2 gene. Lastly, P5 showed c.1768 C > T p.(R590*) heterozygous mutation in the NR3C2 gene. CONCLUSION: Etiology of infant with aldosterone defect was mostly congenital. Renal and adrenal imaging are recommended to exclude renal causes. If clinical picture is suggestive, normal plasma Ald in early infancy cannot rule out aldosterone insufficiency.

Salivary Profiles of 11-oxygenated Androgens Follow a Diurnal Rhythm in Patients With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

CONTEXT: Several studies have highlighted the importance of the 11-oxygenated 19-carbon (11oxC19) adrenal-derived steroids as potential biomarkers for monitoring patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD). OBJECTIVE: To analyze circadian rhythmicity of 11oxC19 steroids in saliva profiles and evaluate their relevance as potential monitoring parameters in 21OHD. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Cross-sectional single-center study including 59 patients with classic 21OHD (men = 30; women = 29) and 49 body mass index- and age-matched controls (men = 19; women = 30). OUTCOME MEASURES: Salivary concentrations of the following steroids were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), androstenedione (A4), testosterone (T), 11ß-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4), and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT). RESULTS: Similar to the previously described rhythmicity of 17OHP, 11OHA4 and 11KT concentrations followed a distinct diurnal rhythm in both patients and controls with highest concentrations in the early morning and declining throughout the day (11-OHA4: mean reduction of hormone concentrations between timepoint 1 and 5 (Δ mean) in male patients = 66%; male controls Δ mean = 83%; female patients Δ mean = 47%; female controls Δ mean = 86%; 11KT: male patients Δ mean = 57%; male controls Δ mean = 63%; female patients Δ mean = 50%; female controls Δ mean = 76%). Significant correlations between the area under the curve for 17OHP and 11KT (rpmale = 0.773<0.0001; rpfemale = 0.737<0.0001), and 11OHA4 (rpmale = 0.6330.0002; rpfemale = 0.5640.0014) were observed in patients but not present or reduced in controls. CONCLUSIONS: Adrenal 11oxC19 androgens are secreted following a diurnal pattern. This should be considered when evaluating their utility for monitoring treatment control.