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1.
Paediatr Anaesth ; 34(12): 1258-1266, 2024 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-39365289

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: The Nociception Level Index has shown benefits in estimating the nociception/antinociception balance in adults, but there is limited evidence in the pediatric population. Evaluating the index performance in children might provide valuable insights to guide opioid administration. AIMS: To evaluate the Nociception Level Index ability to identify a standardized nociceptive stimulus and the analgesic effect of a fentanyl bolus. Additionally, to characterize the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship of fentanyl with the Nociception Level Index response during sevoflurane anesthesia. METHODS: Nineteen children, 5.3 (4.1-6.7) years, scheduled for lower abdominal or urological surgery, were studied. After sevoflurane anesthesia and caudal block, a tetanic stimulus (50 Hz, 60 mA, 5 s) was performed in the forearm. Following the administration of fentanyl 2 µg/kg intravenous bolus, three similar consecutive tetanic stimuli were performed at 5-, 15-, and 30-min post-fentanyl administration. Changes in the Nociception Level Index, heart rate, mean arterial pressure, and bispectral index were compared in response to the tetanic stimuli. Fentanyl plasma concentrations and the Nociception Level Index data were used to elaborate a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model using a sequential modeling approach in NONMEM®. RESULTS: After the first tetanic stimulus, both the Nociception Level Index and the heart rate increased compared to baseline (8 ± 7 vs. 19 ± 10; mean difference (CI95) -12(-18--6) and 100 ± 10 vs. 102 ± 10; -2(-4--0.1)) and decrease following fentanyl administration (19 ± 10 vs. 8 ± 8; 12 (5-18) and 102 ± 10 vs. 91 ± 11; 11 (7-16)). In subsequent tetanic stimuli, heart rate remained unchanged, while the Nociception Level Index progressively increased within 15 min to values similar to those before fentanyl. An allometric weight-scaled, 3-compartment model best characterized the pharmacokinetic profile of fentanyl. The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling analysis revealed hysteresis between fentanyl plasma concentrations and the Nociception Level Index response, characterized by plasma effect-site equilibration half-time of 1.69 (0.4-2.9) min. The estimated fentanyl C50 was 1.93 (0.73-4.2) ng/mL. CONCLUSION: The Nociception Level Index showed superior capability compared to traditional hemodynamic variables in discriminating different nociception-antinociception levels during varying fentanyl concentrations in children under sevoflurane anesthesia.


Subject(s)
Analgesics, Opioid , Anesthesia, General , Anesthetics, Inhalation , Fentanyl , Nociception , Sevoflurane , Humans , Fentanyl/pharmacokinetics , Fentanyl/administration & dosage , Fentanyl/pharmacology , Sevoflurane/pharmacology , Sevoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Sevoflurane/administration & dosage , Male , Female , Child , Nociception/drug effects , Child, Preschool , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Anesthesia, General/methods , Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacokinetics , Analgesics, Opioid/administration & dosage , Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology , Heart Rate/drug effects , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Intravenous/administration & dosage , Methyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics , Methyl Ethers/pharmacology , Methyl Ethers/administration & dosage
2.
Rev. bras. anestesiol ; Rev. bras. anestesiol;66(1): 24-28, Jan.-Feb. 2016. tab
Article in Portuguese | LILACS | ID: lil-773492

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Sevoflurane is an inhalational agent of choice in paediatric anaesthesia. For management of airways in children a suitable alternative to ETT is a paediatric proseal laryngeal mask airway (benchmark second generation SAD). Various studies have shown that less sevoflurane concentration is required for LMA insertion in comparison to TI. BIS is a useful monitor of depth of anaesthesia. AIMS: To compare concentration of sevoflurane (end tidal and MAC value) required for proseal laryngeal mask airway insertion and tracheal intubation in correlation with BIS index. METHOD: The prospective randomised single blind study was done in children between 2 and 9 years of ASA I and II and they were randomly allocated to Group P (proseal laryngeal mask airway insertion) and Group TI (tracheal intubation). No sedative premedication was given. Induction was done with 8% sevoflurane and then predetermined concentration was maintained for 10 min. Airway was secured either by proseal laryngeal mask airway or endotracheal tube without using muscle relaxant. End tidal sevoflurane concentration, MAC, BIS, and other vital parameters were monitored every minute till insertion of an airway device. Insertion conditions were observed. Statistical analysis was done by ANOVA and Students t test. RESULTS: Difference between ETLMI (2.49 ± 0.44) and ETTI (2.81 ± 0.65) as well as MACLMI (1.67 ± 0.13) and MACTI (1.77 ± 0.43) was statistically very significant, while BISLMI (49.05 ± 10.76) and BISTI (41.25 ± 3.25) was significant. Insertion conditions were comparable in both the groups. CONCLUSION: We can conclude that in children airway can be secured safely with proseal laryngeal mask airway using less sevoflurane concentration in comparison to tracheal intubation and this was supported by BIS index.


JUSTIFICATIVA: Sevoflurano é um agente inalatório de escolha em anestesia pediátrica. Para o manejo de vias aéreas em crianças, uma opção adequada para o TET é uma MLP pediátrica (referência de segunda geração SAD). Vários estudos mostraram que uma menor concentração do sevoflurano é necessária para a inserção da ML em comparação com a IT. O BIS é um monitor útil da profundidade da anestesia. OBJETIVOS: Comparar a concentração de sevoflurano (valores no fim da expiração e da CAM) necessária para a inserção de MLP e intubação traqueal em correlação com o BIS. MÉTODO: Estudo prospectivo, randômico e cego conduzido com crianças entre 2-9 anos, estado físico ASA I-II, randomicamente alocados nos grupos P (inserção de MLP) e IT (intubação traqueal). Pré-medicação sedativa não foi administrada. A indução foi feita com sevoflurano a 8% e, em seguida, a concentração predeterminada foi mantida durante 10 minutos. A via aérea foi garantida por MLP ou tubo endotraqueal, sem o uso de relaxante muscular. A concentração de sevoflurano no fim da expiração, CAM, BIS e outros parâmetros vitais foram monitorados a cada minuto até a inserção do dispositivo respiratório. As condições de inserção foram observadas. A análise estatística foi feita com o teste t de Student e Anova. RESULTADOS: As diferenças entre TEIML (2,49 ± 0,44) e TEIT (2,81 ± 0,65), bem como CAMIML (1,67 ± 0,13) e CAMIT (1,77 ± 0,43), foram estatisticamente muito significativas; enquanto BISIML (49,05 ± 10,76) e BISIT (41,25 ± 3,25) foram significativos. As condições de inserção foram comparáveis em ambos os grupos. CONCLUSÃO: Podermos concluir que a MLP em comparação com a intubação traqueal pode ser segura para a via aérea de crianças com o uso de menos concentração de sevoflurano, o que foi confirmado pelo BIS.


Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Child, Preschool , Child , Laryngeal Masks , Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Intubation, Intratracheal/methods , Methyl Ethers/administration & dosage , Single-Blind Method , Pilot Projects , Prospective Studies , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Consciousness Monitors , Airway Management/methods , Sevoflurane , Methyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics
3.
Braz J Anesthesiol ; 66(1): 24-8, 2016.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26768926

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: Sevoflurane is an inhalational agent of choice in paediatric anaesthesia. For management of airways in children a suitable alternative to ETT is a paediatric proseal laryngeal mask airway (benchmark second generation SAD). Various studies have shown that less sevoflurane concentration is required for LMA insertion in comparison to TI. BIS is a useful monitor of depth of anaesthesia. AIMS: To compare concentration of sevoflurane (end tidal and MAC value) required for proseal laryngeal mask airway insertion and tracheal intubation in correlation with BIS index. METHOD: The prospective randomised single blind study was done in children between 2 and 9 years of ASA I and II and they were randomly allocated to Group P (proseal laryngeal mask airway insertion) and Group TI (tracheal intubation). No sedative premedication was given. Induction was done with 8% sevoflurane and then predetermined concentration was maintained for 10 min. Airway was secured either by proseal laryngeal mask airway or endotracheal tube without using muscle relaxant. End tidal sevoflurane concentration, MAC, BIS, and other vital parameters were monitored every minute till insertion of an airway device. Insertion conditions were observed. Statistical analysis was done by ANOVA and Students t test. RESULTS: Difference between ETLMI (2.49 ± 0.44) and ETTI (2.81 ± 0.65) as well as MACLMI (1.67 ± 0.13) and MACTI (1.77 ± 0.43) was statistically very significant, while BISLMI (49.05 ± 10.76) and BISTI (41.25 ± 3.25) was significant. Insertion conditions were comparable in both the groups. CONCLUSION: We can conclude that in children airway can be secured safely with proseal laryngeal mask airway using less sevoflurane concentration in comparison to tracheal intubation and this was supported by BIS index.


Subject(s)
Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Intubation, Intratracheal/methods , Laryngeal Masks , Methyl Ethers/administration & dosage , Airway Management/methods , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Child , Child, Preschool , Consciousness Monitors , Female , Humans , Male , Methyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics , Pilot Projects , Prospective Studies , Sevoflurane , Single-Blind Method
4.
Vet Anaesth Analg ; 43(1): 27-34, 2016 Jan.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25880906

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of premedication with acepromazine-morphine or acepromazine-methadone on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane (ISOMAC) and the incidence of bradycardia and hypotension in dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized clinical study. ANIMALS: Thirty-two female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. METHODS: Dogs were randomly assigned to one of three groups: no premedication (CONTROL group; n = 9); acepromazine (0.02 mg kg(-1)) and morphine (0.5 mg kg(-1)) (ACPMOR group; n = 11); and acepromazine (0.02 mg kg(-1)) and methadone (0.5 mg kg(-1)) (ACPMET group; n = 12). All drugs were administered intramuscularly. Twenty minutes later, anesthesia was induced with propofol administered intravenously to effect. Determinations of the ISOMAC were conducted by use of the up-and-down method using a quantal study design to determine the MAC for the population. Cardiovascular variables were registered immediately before noxious stimulation that was performed approximately 30 minutes after anesthetic induction. The occurrence of bradycardia (heart rates ≤ 70 beats minute(-1) in dogs ≤15 kg and ≤60 beats minute(-1) in dogs >15 kg) and hypotension (mean arterial pressure < 60 mmHg) were registered. RESULTS: The ISOMAC in CONTROL was 1.20 ± 0.11%. Compared with CONTROL, the ISOMAC was reduced by 33.3% and 68.3% in ACPMOR and ACPMET, respectively (p < 0.001). The ISOMAC was lower in ACPMET than in ACPMOR (p < 0.001). Bradycardia was observed in 0%, 45% and 50% of dogs and hypotension was observed in 56%, 55% and 67% of dogs in CONTROL, ACPMOR and ACPMET, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The percentage reduction of the ISOMAC in ACPMET was approximately twice that in ACPMOR. Premedication with acepromazine-morphine or acepromazine-methadone increased the incidence of bradycardia. Hypotension was observed in most dogs during isoflurane anesthesia regardless of premedication.


Subject(s)
Acepromazine/pharmacology , Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology , Dogs/physiology , Premedication/veterinary , Pulmonary Alveoli/drug effects , Acepromazine/administration & dosage , Analgesics, Opioid/administration & dosage , Anesthesia, Inhalation/veterinary , Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Animals , Dogs/surgery , Female , Hysterectomy/veterinary , Isoflurane/administration & dosage , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Methadone/administration & dosage , Methadone/pharmacology , Morphine/administration & dosage , Morphine/pharmacology , Ovariectomy/veterinary , Pulmonary Alveoli/metabolism
5.
Vet Anaesth Analg ; 43(2): 136-44, 2016 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26058733

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of a prolonged constant rate infusion (CRI) of fentanyl on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane (ISOMAC ) and to establish whether concurrent atropine administration influences ISOMAC in dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, crossover study. ANIMALS: Six healthy dogs weighing 13.0 ± 4.1 kg. METHODS: Dogs were anesthetized with isoflurane under conditions of normocapnia and normothermia. Arterial blood pressure was monitored invasively. Each dog was administered two treatments, on different occasions, in a crossover design. The dogs were administered intravenously (IV) an atropine bolus 0.02 mg kg(-1) and CRI at 0.04 mg kg(-1) hour(-1) (fentanyl-atropine treatment) or no atropine (fentanyl treatment). For each dog, baseline ISOMAC was measured in duplicate using a tail clamp technique. Subsequently, all dogs were administered a fentanyl bolus (5 µg kg(-1)) and CRI (9 µg kg(-1) hour(-1)) IV, and ISOMAC was re-determined at 120 and 300 minutes after initiation of the fentanyl CRI. RESULTS: Baseline ISOMAC values in the fentanyl and fentanyl-atropine treatments were 1.38 ± 0.16% and 1.39 ± 0.14%, respectively. Fentanyl significantly decreased the ISOMAC by 50 ± 9% and 47 ± 13% after 120 minutes and by 51 ± 14% and 50 ± 9% after 300 minutes (p < 0.001) in the fentanyl and fentanyl-atropine treatments, respectively. Compared with baseline, heart rate decreased significantly in the fentanyl treatment by 35% and 43% at 120 and 300 minutes, respectively. In the fentanyl-atropine treatment, heart rate did not change significantly over time. In both treatments, systolic arterial pressure increased from baseline after fentanyl. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In this study, fentanyl reduced the ISOMAC by approximately 50%. The ISOMAC remained stable throughout the 300 minute CRI of fentanyl, suggesting no cumulative effect of the opioid. Atropine did not influence ISOMAC in dogs.


Subject(s)
Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacology , Atropine/administration & dosage , Fentanyl/pharmacology , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Pulmonary Alveoli/metabolism , Anesthetics, Intravenous/administration & dosage , Animals , Cross-Over Studies , Dogs , Fentanyl/administration & dosage , Infusions, Intravenous/veterinary , Prospective Studies , Pulmonary Alveoli/drug effects
6.
Braz J Anesthesiol ; 65(5): 379-83, 2015.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26323737

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: The bispectral index (BIS) is a parameter derived by electroencephalography (EEG) which provides a direct measurement of the effects of sedatives and anesthetics on the brain and offers guidance on the adequacy of anesthesia. The literature lacks studies on BIS monitoring in pediatric patients with congenital brain disease undergoing general anesthesia. CLINICAL FEATURES: A 13-year-old child weighing 32kg, suffering from lobar holoprosencephaly, underwent surgery in which the bispectral index (BIS) monitoring the depth of anesthesia showed an abnormal response. Detailed analysis of the trends of BIS values in the different observation times demonstrated sudden falls and repetitive values of BIS likely related to repetitive epileptiform electrical activity caused by sevoflurane. CONCLUSION: The BIS is a very useful monitoring tool for assessing the degree of depth of anesthesia and to analyze the electroencephalographic variations of anesthetics. Particular attention should be given to patients with congenital disorders of the central nervous system in which the BIS may give abnormal responses that do not reflect an accurate assessment of the depth of anesthesia.


Subject(s)
Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Electroencephalography , Holoprosencephaly/physiopathology , Methyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics , Monitoring, Physiologic , Adolescent , Humans , Sevoflurane
7.
Botucatu; s.n; 2011. 181 p. ilus, tab.
Thesis in Portuguese | LILACS | ID: lil-673801

ABSTRACT

A metadona é um opióide que possui potência analgésica semelhante à da morfina. Doses elevadas de metadona intravenosa (0,5-1,0 mg/kg), apesar de reduzirem a concentração alveolar mínima do isoflurano (CAMISO), resultam em maior depressão cardíaca que a observada com a morfina intravenosa (1,0 mg/kg) em cães. Com a hipótese de que a metadona peridural poderia proporcionar vantagens clínicas em relação à metadona intravenosa (maior potencialização da anestesia inalatória e maior eficácia analgésica), os estudos apresentados objetivaram comparar aspectos farmacocinéticos e farmacodinâmicos destas vias de administração da metadona em cães. Nos dois estudos iniciais (Capítulos 1 e 2), os mesmos seis animais foram anestesiados com isoflurano e tratados com metadona (0,5 mg/kg) peridural ou intravenosa em ocasiões distintas. No primeiro estudo (Capítulo 1), para comparação da farmacocinética destas duas vias de administração, a concentração de metadona foi determinada no plasma e no líquor da cisterna magna antes e durante 450 minutos após a administração do opióide. No segundo estudo (Capítulo 2), a CAMISO foi mensurada antes e após 2,5 e 5 horas da administração da metadona, mediante a aplicação da estimulação nociceptiva em membro pélvico e torácico (via peridural) ou em membro pélvico apenas (via intravenosa). No último estudo (Capítulo 3), cadelas apresentando tumores mamários, após serem tratadas de forma preemptiva com metadona (0,5 mg/kg) peridural ou intravenosa (10 animais por grupo), foram submetidas à mastectomia unilateral. Nesta etapa, avaliou-se a concentração expirada de isoflurano (ETISO) necessária à realização da mastectomia e, no período pós-operatório, avaliou-se os escores de dor, limiares nociceptivos mecânicos (LNM) das cadeias mamárias e requerimento de resgates analgésicos...


Methadone is an opioid that has analgesic potency comparable to that of morphine. High doses of intravenous methadone (0.5-1.0 mg/kg), in spite of reducing the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane (MACISO), cause greater cardiac depression than intravenous morphine (1 mg/kg) in dogs. The studies presented here aimed to compare some pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of peridural and intravenous methadone in dogs, testing the hypothesis that peridural methadone could result in clinical advantages when compared to intravenous methadone (greater reduction in anesthetic requirements and greater analgesic efficacy). In the first 2 studies (Chapters 1 and 2), the same six animals underwent isoflurane anesthesia and were treated with methadone (0.5 mg/kg) administered via the peridural or intravenous routes during different occasions. During the first study (Chapter 1), in order to compare the pharmacokinetics of these two administration routes, methadone concentrations were determined in plasma and in the cisternal cerebrospinal fluid before and for 450 minutes after opioid injection. During the second study (Chapter 2), MACISO was measured before, 2.5 and 5 hours after methadone injection via nociceptive stimulation of the thoracic and pelvic limb (peridural) or the pelvic limb (intravenous). During the last series of studies (Chapter 3), bitches presented with mammary gland tumors were preemptively treated with peridural or intravenous methadone (0.5 mg/kg) (10 animals per group) and underwent unilateral mastectomy. The end-tidal isoflurane concentration (ETISO) necessary for maintaining surgical anesthesia was evaluated and, during the postoperative period, parameters evaluated included Glasgow pain scores, mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNT) in the mammary glands, and requirement for supplemental analgesia...


Subject(s)
Animals , Dogs , Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacokinetics , Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacology , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Isoflurane/pharmacology , Methadone/administration & dosage , Methadone/pharmacokinetics , Methadone/pharmacology
8.
Vet Anaesth Analg ; 37(3): 240-9, 2010 May.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20230554

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of methadone on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane (ISO(MAC)) in dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized cross-over experimental study. ANIMALS: Six adult mongrel dogs, four males and two females, weighing 22.8 +/- 6.6 kg. METHODS: Animals were anesthetized with isoflurane and mechanically ventilated on three separate days, at least 1 week apart. Core temperature was maintained between 37.5 and 38.5 degrees C during ISO(MAC) determinations. On each study day, ISO(MAC) was determined using electrical stimulation of the antebrachium (50 V, 50 Hz, 10 mseconds) at 2.5 and 5 hours after intravenous injection of physiological saline (control) or one of two doses of methadone (0.5 or 1.0 mg kg(-1)). RESULTS: Mean (+/-SD) ISO(MAC) in the control treatment was 1.19 +/- 0.15% and 1.18 +/- 0.15% at 2.5 and 5 hours, respectively. The 1.0 mg kg(-1) dose of methadone reduced ISO(MAC) by 48% (2.5 hours) and by 30% (5 hours), whereas the 0.5 mg kg(-1) dose caused smaller reductions in ISO(MAC) (35% and 15% reductions at 2.5 and 5 hours, respectively). Both doses of methadone decreased heart rate (HR), but the 1.0 mg kg(-1) dose was associated with greater negative chronotropic actions (HR 37% lower than control) and mild metabolic acidosis at 2.5 hours. Mean arterial pressure increased in the MET1.0 treatment (13% higher than control) at 2.5 hours. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Methadone reduces ISO(MAC) in a dose-related fashion and this effect is lessened over time. Although the isoflurane sparing effect of the 0.5 mg kg(-1) dose of methadone was smaller in comparison to the 1.0 mg kg(-1) dose, the lower dose is recommended for clinical use because it results in less evidence of cardiovascular impairment.


Subject(s)
Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Dogs , Isoflurane/administration & dosage , Methadone/pharmacology , Pulmonary Alveoli/drug effects , Anesthesia, Inhalation/veterinary , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Animals , Blood Gas Analysis/veterinary , Blood Pressure/drug effects , Body Temperature/drug effects , Dogs/physiology , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Drug Interactions , Female , Heart Rate/drug effects , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Male
9.
Am J Vet Res ; 71(2): 150-6, 2010 Feb.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20113221

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of remifentanil on isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration (ISO(MAC)) in dogs. ANIMALS: 6 adult mixed-breed dogs. PROCEDURES: Dogs were anesthetized with isoflurane on 2 occasions. During the first set of experiments, ISO(MAC) was determined before remifentanil infusion (baseline), during constant rate infusion (CRI) of remifentanil (0.15, 0.30, 0.60, and 0.90 microg/kg/min), and 80 minutes after remifentanil infusion. After a 1-week washout period, dogs received a CRI of remifentanil (0.15 microg/kg/min) and ISO(MAC) was redetermined 2, 4, and 6 hours after commencing the infusion. RESULTS: Mean +/- SD baseline ISO(MAC) was 1.24 +/- 0.18%. Remifentanil infusion (0.15, 0.30, 0.60, and 0.90 microg/kg/min) decreased ISO(MAC) by 43 +/- 10%, 59 +/- 10%, 66 +/- 9%, and 71 +/- 9%, respectively. The ISO(MAC) values determined during the 0.30, 0.60, and 0.90 microg/kg/min infusion rates did not differ from each other, but these values were significantly lower, compared with the 0.15 microg/kg/min infusion rate. The ISO(MAC) recorded after remifentanil infusion (1.09 +/- 0.18%) did not differ from baseline ISO(MAC). There was no change in ISO(MAC) throughout the 6-hour period of a CRI of remifentanil. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Remifentanil decreased ISO(MAC) in a dose-related fashion; the reduction in ISO(MAC) was stable over the course of a prolonged CRI (6 hours). A dose of 0.30 microg of remifentanil/kg/min resulted in nearly maximal isoflurane-sparing effect in dogs; a ceiling effect was observed at higher infusion rates.


Subject(s)
Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacokinetics , Dogs , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Piperidines/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacology , Animals , Blood Gas Analysis , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Drug Interactions , Female , Isoflurane/pharmacology , Male , Piperidines/blood , Piperidines/pharmacology , Pulmonary Alveoli , Remifentanil
10.
Vet Anaesth Analg ; 36(5): 407-13, 2009 Sep.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-19558370

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of a low-dose constant rate infusion (LCRI; 50 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) and high-dose CRI (HCRI; 200 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) lidocaine on arterial blood pressure and on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane (Sevo), in dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized experimental design. ANIMALS: Eight healthy adult spayed female dogs, weighing 16.0 +/- 2.1 kg. METHODS: Each dog was anesthetized with sevoflurane in oxygen and mechanically ventilated, on three separate occasions 7 days apart. Following a 40-minute equilibration period, a 0.1-mL kg(-1) saline loading dose or lidocaine (2 mg kg(-1) intravenously) was administered over 3 minutes, followed by saline CRI or lidocaine LCRI or HCRI. The sevoflurane MAC was determined using a tail clamp. Heart rate (HR), blood pressure and plasma concentration of lidocaine were measured. All values are expressed as mean +/- SD. RESULTS: The MAC of Sevo was 2.30 +/- 0.19%. The LCRI reduced MAC by 15% to 1.95 +/- 0.23% and HCRI by 37% to 1.45 +/- 0.21%. Diastolic and mean pressure increased with HCRI. Lidocaine plasma concentration was 0.84 +/- 0.18 for LCRI and 1.89 +/- 0.37 microg mL(-1) for HCRI. Seventy-five percent of HCRI dogs vomited during recovery. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Lidocaine infusions dose dependently decreased the MAC of Sevo, did not induce clinically significant changes in HR or arterial blood pressure, but vomiting was common during recovery in HCRI.


Subject(s)
Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anti-Arrhythmia Agents/pharmacokinetics , Dogs , Lidocaine/pharmacokinetics , Methyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics , Pulmonary Alveoli/metabolism , Anesthetics, Inhalation/administration & dosage , Animals , Anti-Arrhythmia Agents/administration & dosage , Blood Pressure , Drug Interactions , Female , Infusions, Intravenous , Sevoflurane
11.
Botucatu; s.n; 2008. 52 p. tab, graf, ilus.
Thesis in Portuguese | LILACS | ID: lil-499535

ABSTRACT

Há controvérsia na literatura sobre a determinação do período exato que corresponde à classificação dos pacientes caninos em neonatos ou pediátricos. Contudo, sabe-se que até 6 semanas de idade estes animais apresentam imaturidade do sistema respiratório, cardiovascular, sistema nervoso central, hepático e renal. Tal imaturidade dos sistemas pode interferir na disponibilidade dos fármacos e na resposta destes à anestesia. Alguns fatores influenciam diretamente a concentração alveolar mínima (CAM) dos anestésicos inalatórios sendo a idade um destes. Há escassa literatura a respeito da influencia da idade na CAM dos anestésicos inalatórios. Desta maneira, este trabalho tem o objetivo de determinar a concentração alveolar mínima (CAM) do sevofluorano em cães jovens nas diferentes faixas etárias pré-determinadas pelos pesquisadores. Foram utilizados oito filhotes de cães, da raça Retriever do Labrador, submetidos à anestesia inalatória com sevofluorano aos 30, 45, 60 e 90 (mais ou menos 2) dias de idade. A monitoração foi composta de frequência cardíaca, frequência respiratória, pressão arterial sistólica não-invasiva, oximetria de pulso, hemogasometria arterial e temperatura retal, concentração de sevofluorano (ETsev) e dióxido de carbono (ETco2) no final da expiração. A ETsev ao final da expiração foi mantida em 3% por no mínimo 15 minutos para a realização do estímulo supramáximo doloroso e determinação da CAM que constitiu-se em pinçamento de cauda durante 60 segundos ou menos, caso a resposta fosse positiva. Quando a resposta ao primeiro estímulo fosse negativa, a concentração de sevofluorano foi diminuída em 0,2% em relação a concentração inicial (3%) e o estímulo foi repetido após 15 minutos, para possibilitar a estabilização do circuito. Se, inicialmente, a resposta obtida fosse positiva, a concentração do anestésico foi aumentada em 0,2% e, após 15 minutos, novo estímulo foi aplicado...


Subject(s)
Animals , Male , Female , Dogs , Anesthesia/veterinary , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacology
12.
Am J Vet Res ; 68(12): 1308-18, 2007 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-18072871

ABSTRACT

Objective-To evaluate the effects of epidural administration of 3 doses of dexmedetomidine on isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) and characterize changes in bispectral index (BIS) induced by nociceptive stimulation used for MAC determination in dogs. Animals-6 adult dogs. Procedures-Isoflurane-anesthetized dogs received physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (control treatment) or dexmedetomidine (1.5 [DEX1.5], 3.0 [DEX3], or 6.0 [DEX6] mug/kg) epidurally in a crossover study. Isoflurane MAC (determined by use of electrical nociceptive stimulation of the hind limb) was targeted to be accomplished at 2 and 4.5 hours. Changes in BIS attributable to nociceptive stimulation and cardiopulmonary data were recorded at each MAC determination. Results-With the control treatment, mean +/- SD MAC values did not change over time (1.57 +/- 0.23% and 1.55 +/- 0.25% at 2 and 4.5 hours, respectively). Compared with the control treatment, MAC was significantly lower at 2 hours (13% reduction) but not at 4.5 hours (7% reduction) in DEX1.5-treated dogs and significantly lower at 2 hours (29% reduction) and 4.5 hours (13% reduction) in DEX3-treated dogs. The DEX6 treatment yielded the greatest MAC reduction (31% and 22% at 2 and 4.5 hours, respectively). During all treatments, noxious stimulation increased BIS; but changes in BIS were correlated with increases in electromyographic activity. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-In dogs, epidural administration of dexmedetomidine resulted in dose-dependent decreases in isoflurane MAC and that effect decreased over time. Changes in BIS during MAC determinations may not represent increased awareness because of the possible interference of electromyographic activity.


Subject(s)
Anesthesia, Inhalation/veterinary , Dexmedetomidine/administration & dosage , Dexmedetomidine/pharmacology , Isoflurane/pharmacokinetics , Pulmonary Alveoli/metabolism , Analgesics, Non-Narcotic/administration & dosage , Analgesics, Non-Narcotic/pharmacology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Animals , Dogs , Female , Injections, Epidural , Male
13.
Rev. bras. anestesiol ; Rev. bras. anestesiol;55(1): 100-117, jan.-fev. 2005. ilus, graf
Article in Portuguese, English | LILACS | ID: lil-393578

ABSTRACT

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A imobilidade é uma característica essencial da anestesia geral e que deve ser buscada e mantida durante todo o ato anestésico. A potência anestésica, chamada Concentração Alveolar Mínima (CAM), é a expressão da inibição dos movimentos em resposta a estímulos nociceptivos. Entretanto, apesar da medula espinhal ser reconhecida como principal mediadora da imobilidade cirúrgica, os mecanismos celulares e subcelulares da ação dos anestésicos inalatórios para produzirem imobilidade não são, ainda, totalmente conhecidos. Tendo em vista o grande avanço na pesquisa dos mecanismos de ação dos anestésicos inalatórios e a resultante grande quantidade de informações, essa revisão tem como objetivo avaliar criticamente os estudos clínicos e experimentais realizados para identificação dos mecanismos e locais de ação dos anestésicos inalatórios para produção de imobilidade em resposta a estímulos nociceptivos. CONTEUDO: Os mecanismos de ação dos anestésicos inalatórios no SNC podem ser divididos em três níveis: macroscópico, microscópico e molecular. No aspecto macroscópico, estudos comportamentais mostraram ser a medula espinhal o principal local da ação anestésica para promover imobilidade em resposta à estimulação dolorosa. No nível celular, a excitabilidade dos motoneurônios, neurônios nociceptivos e a transmissão sináptica estão, todos, envolvidos na ação dos anestésicos inalatórios. Sob o ponto de vista molecular, diversos receptores são afetados pelos anestésicos, mas poucos devem mediar diretamente a ação anestésica. Entre estes, destacam-se os receptores de glicina, NMDA de glutamato, 5-HT2A, e canais de sódio voltagem-dependentes. CONCLUSÕES: A imobilidade produzida pelos anestésicos inalatórios é mediada, principalmente, através de uma ação sobre a medula espinhal. Esse efeito ocorre pela ação anestésica sobre a excitabilidade dos neurônios motores espinhais, mas também sobre neurônios e interneurônios nociceptivos do corno posterior da medula. A ação sobre os receptores específicos exerce efeito sobre a transmissão sináptica desses neurônios.


Subject(s)
Pulmonary Alveoli/metabolism , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacology , Immobilization , Spinal Cord , Movement
14.
Rev. argent. anestesiol ; 60(6): 402-408, nov.-dic. 2002.
Article in Spanish | LILACS | ID: lil-341204

ABSTRACT

Durante la anestesia general y el período postoperatorio, se han detectado alteraciones de diversos componentes de la respuesta inmunitaria, tanto en el número de células como en su funcionalidad, acompañados o no por cambios en la concentración de diversos factores solubles. La contribución de los anestésicos a las alteraciones perioperatorias de la respuesta inmune aún no ha sido aclarada adecuadamente. Nuestra experiencia en ratones indica que el sevoflurano es un anestésico seguro para estudios experimentales, aún en esquemas de anestesia reiterada. Si embargo, modula aspectos de la respuesta inmune, con efectos de menor intensidad que los causados por el halotano, los animales no demuestran haber recuperado sus niveles normales de respuesta. En pacientes se comparó las repercusiones de la anestesia total endovenosa (propofol, remifentanilo y vecuronio) o inhalatoria (propofol, fentanil e isoflurano) en colecistectomía por videolaparoscopía. Se verificaron diferencias entre los grupos en el intraoperatorio y en el primer día del postoperatorio, y una menor activación neuroendocrina por anestesia endovenosa. En otro grupo de experiencias, al comparar dos métodos de anestesia intravenosa total, ketamina-fentanilo-droperidol-midazolam versus remifentanilo-midazolam, se verificó que las condiciones para la intubación y la extubación fueron similares para ambas técnicas, pero este estudio sugiere que el remifentanilo proporcionó mejor estabilidad hemodinámica y neuroendocrina, así como cambios menores en los niveles de leucocitos. A partir de estas líneas experimentales podemos concluir que, si bien el trauma quirúrgico es el principal factor involucrado en los cambios neuroendocrinos relacionados con la cirugía, los diferentes procedimientos anestésicos pueden ejercer efectos inmunomodulatorios en la respuesta a la cirugía, principalmente en el período perioperatorio. En consecuencia, sugerimos que en la elección de agentes anestésicos o sedantes, ya sea para uso quirúrgico o en unidades de cuidados intensivos, se tengan en cuenta, en lo posible, sus propiedades inmunomodulatorias.


Subject(s)
Animals , Mice , Adjuvants, Immunologic , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/immunology , Immune System , Immunosuppression Therapy , Intraoperative Complications , Leukocytes , Anesthesia, Intravenous , Halothane
15.
Rev. argent. anestesiol ; 60(6): 402-408, nov.-dic. 2002.
Article in Spanish | BINACIS | ID: bin-6034

ABSTRACT

Durante la anestesia general y el período postoperatorio, se han detectado alteraciones de diversos componentes de la respuesta inmunitaria, tanto en el número de células como en su funcionalidad, acompañados o no por cambios en la concentración de diversos factores solubles. La contribución de los anestésicos a las alteraciones perioperatorias de la respuesta inmune aún no ha sido aclarada adecuadamente. Nuestra experiencia en ratones indica que el sevoflurano es un anestésico seguro para estudios experimentales, aún en esquemas de anestesia reiterada. Si embargo, modula aspectos de la respuesta inmune, con efectos de menor intensidad que los causados por el halotano, los animales no demuestran haber recuperado sus niveles normales de respuesta. En pacientes se comparó las repercusiones de la anestesia total endovenosa (propofol, remifentanilo y vecuronio) o inhalatoria (propofol, fentanil e isoflurano) en colecistectomía por videolaparoscopía. Se verificaron diferencias entre los grupos en el intraoperatorio y en el primer día del postoperatorio, y una menor activación neuroendocrina por anestesia endovenosa. En otro grupo de experiencias, al comparar dos métodos de anestesia intravenosa total, ketamina-fentanilo-droperidol-midazolam versus remifentanilo-midazolam, se verificó que las condiciones para la intubación y la extubación fueron similares para ambas técnicas, pero este estudio sugiere que el remifentanilo proporcionó mejor estabilidad hemodinámica y neuroendocrina, así como cambios menores en los niveles de leucocitos. A partir de estas líneas experimentales podemos concluir que, si bien el trauma quirúrgico es el principal factor involucrado en los cambios neuroendocrinos relacionados con la cirugía, los diferentes procedimientos anestésicos pueden ejercer efectos inmunomodulatorios en la respuesta a la cirugía, principalmente en el período perioperatorio. En consecuencia, sugerimos que en la elección de agentes anestésicos o sedantes, ya sea para uso quirúrgico o en unidades de cuidados intensivos, se tengan en cuenta, en lo posible, sus propiedades inmunomodulatorias. (AU)


Subject(s)
Animals , Mice , Immune System/drug effects , Anesthetics, Inhalation/immunology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Adjuvants, Immunologic , Leukocytes , Intraoperative Complications , Immunosuppression Therapy , Halothane/pharmacokinetics , Anesthesia, Intravenous
16.
Rev. bras. anestesiol ; Rev. bras. anestesiol;52(5): 517-524, set.-out. 2002. ilus, tab
Article in Portuguese, English | LILACS | ID: lil-330679

ABSTRACT

Justificativa e objetivos - Os efeitos dos agentes bloqueadores neuromusculares sobre a junção neuromuscular são aumentados pelos anestésicos voláteis. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a influência do sevoflurano e do isoflurano na recuperação do bloqueio neuromuscular produzido pelo cisatracúrio. Método - Foram estudados 90 pacientes, estado físico ASA I e II, submetidos à cirurgias eletivas sob anestesia geral, distribuídos em três grupos: Grupo I (sevoflurano), Grupo II (isoflurano) e Grupo III (propofol). Todos os pacientes receberam como medicação pré-anestésica, midazolam (0,1 mg.kgðû) por via muscular, 30 minutos antes da cirurgia. A indução anestésica foi obtida com alfentanil (50 µg.kgðû), propofol (2,5 mg.kgðû) e cisatracúrio (0,15 mg.kgðû). Os pacientes foram ventilados com oxigênio a 100 por cento sob máscara até o desaparecimento das quatro respostas a SQE, quando foram realizadas as manobras de laringoscopia e intubação traqueal. Os agentes voláteis para a manutenção da anestesia foram introduzidos logo após a intubação traqueal e empregados nas concentrações de 2 por cento e 1 por cento, respectivamente para o sevoflurano e isoflurano, e o propofol em infusão contínua (7 a 10 mg.kgðû.hðû). Em todos os pacientes empregou-se a mistura de oxigênio e óxido nitroso a 50 por cento. A função neuromuscular foi monitorizada por aceleromiografia do músculo adutor do polegar, empregando-se a SQE a cada 15 segundos. Foram avaliados: a duração clínica do bloqueio neuromuscular (T1 25 por cento) e o índice de recuperação (IR=T1 25-75 por cento). Resultados - Os tempos médios e desvios padrão para a duração clínica (T1 25 por cento) e índice de recuperação (IR = T1 25-75 por cento) foram respectivamente: Grupo I (66,2 ñ 13,42 min e 23,6 ñ 5,02 min), Grupo II (54,4 ñ 6,58 min e 14,9 ñ 3,82 min) e Grupo III (47,2 ñ 7,43 min e 16,2 ñ 2,93 min). Em relação à duração clínica houve diferença significante entre os grupos I e II, I e III, e II e III. Para o índice de recuperação houve diferença significante entre o grupo I e os demais grupos. Conclusões - A recuperação do bloqueio neuromuscular produzido pelo cisatracúrio foi mais lenta durante a anestesia com os agentes voláteis do que com o propofol, sendo o efeito mais pronunciado com o sevoflurano


Subject(s)
Humans , Adolescent , Adult , Middle Aged , Anesthesia, Inhalation/methods , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthesia Recovery Period , Atracurium , Drug Interactions , Isoflurane , Neuromuscular Blockade , Neuromuscular Blocking Agents , Propofol , Prospective Studies
17.
Rev. argent. anestesiol ; 59(4): 226-235, jul.-ago. 2001. ilus, graf
Article in Spanish | LILACS | ID: lil-318036

ABSTRACT

La finalidad del presente trabajo consiste en brindar una visión actualizada sobre los mecanismos fisiológicos de control de la función respiratoria durante el estado de vigilia, el sueño fisiológico y la anestesia general, y los efectos de la premedicación, los anestésicos generales y otras drogas empleadas en la práctica anestésica sobre la regulación ventilatoria. El mejor conocimiento de los procesos mencionados permite prevenir situaciones que, eventualmente, colocan en riesgo la salud y la vida del paciente.


Subject(s)
Humans , Anesthesia Recovery Period , Anesthesia, General , Respiratory Physiological Phenomena , Neurotransmitter Agents , Pulmonary Ventilation , Pulmonary Ventilation/physiology , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Chemoreceptor Cells , Hypercapnia , Hypoxia , Sleep/physiology , Wakefulness
18.
Rev. bras. anestesiol ; Rev. bras. anestesiol;51(4): 273-84, jul.-ago. 2001. tab, graf
Article in Portuguese, English | LILACS | ID: lil-297980

ABSTRACT

A utilizaçäo de múltiplos de CAM, näo comparáveis do sevoflurano e do halotano, além da diferente contribuiçäo do N2O2 na CAM destes dois agentes, em pacientes pediátricos, säo os fatores citados para explicar igual velocidade de induçäo e de recuperaçäo destes agentes com diferentes solubilidades sangüíneas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o tempo de induçäo através de múltiplos da CAM e a recuperaçäo da anestesia mantida com concentraçäo expirada fixa de 1 CAM de halotano ou sevoflurano, associados ou näo ao N2O, em crianças sob anestesia peridural sacra. Método: foram estudadas 63 crianças divididas em 4 grupos de acordo com o agente inalatório utilizado para induçäo e manutençäo da anestesia: Grupo 1: Halotano, Grupo 2: Halotano + N20, Grupo 3: Sevoflurano, Grupo 4: Sevoflurano + N2O. Todas foram submetidas à peridural sacra. A induçäo sob máscara foi iniciada com 1 CAM do halogenado e incrementos de 0,5 CAM a cada 3 movimentos respiratórios até atingir 3 CAM no máximo. Foram analisados os seguintes parâmetros: frequência cardíaca, pressäo arterial sistólica e diastólica, fraçäo expirada dos agentes inalatórios e os tempos de induçäo, de emergência e de resposta a comandos. Resultados: Os tempos cirúrgicos näo mostraram diferença significativa entre os grupos. Os tempos para perda do reflexo ciliar, para o término da induçäo, de emergência e orientaçäo dos grupos 1 e 2 foram maiores que dos grupos 3 e 4, sem diferença entre os grupos 1 e 2 e entre os grupos 3 e 4. A freqüência cardíaca e as pressöes arteriais sistólica e diastóloca näo diferiram entre os grupos, nos diferentes tempos considerados. Conclusöes: Nesta faixa etária, com a técnica anestésica empregada, os tempos de induçäo e de recuperaçäo da anestesia foram diferentes entre os grupos do halotano e do sevoflurano, mas näo apresentaram diferença com a associaçäo de óxido nitroso


Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Child , Child, Preschool , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthesia Recovery Period , Anesthetics, Combined , Child , Child, Preschool , Heart Rate , Halothane/pharmacokinetics , Nitrous Oxide/pharmacokinetics , Arterial Pressure , Pediatrics
19.
Rev. bras. anestesiol ; Rev. bras. anestesiol;51(4): 331-4, jul.-ago. 2001.
Article in Portuguese, English | LILACS | ID: lil-297987

ABSTRACT

O canal arterial é uma estrutura que integra a circulaçä fetal. Fatores como prematuridade, hipoxia, acidose e sepse contribuem para a sua patência. O objetivo deste relato é demonstrar a utilizaçäo da anestesia combinada em cirurgia para correçäo da persistência do canal arterial. Relato de caso: paciente masculino, 14 meses, 11 kg, estado físico ASA II com infecçöes de repetiçäo foi submetido à correçäo cirúrgica de PCA. Utilizou-se midazolam (0,5 mg.Kg-û) por via oral, no pré-anestésico, seguido de induçäo inalatória com halotano 1-2 por cento. A hidrataçäo foi feita com soluçäo de Ringer com lactato (8ml.Kg-û.h-û). Após intubaçäo orotraqueal foi iniciada ventilaçäo mecânica em sistema circular pediátrico com reabsorvedor de CO2. Procedeu-se bloqueio peridural torácico no espaço T1-T2 com injeçäo única de bupivacaína a 0,125 por cento com adrenalina 1:800.000 no volume de 0,5 ml.Kg-û. A manutençäo foi feita com halotano (0,5-0,6 CAM). O procedimento cirúrgico durou 70 minutos e foi feito por toracotomia látero-posterior com boa estabilidade cardiovascular. A criança foi extubada na sala cirúrgica e encaminhada para SRPA em boas condiçöes. Conclusöes: A técnica de anestesia combinada em anestesia pediátrica promove melhora na qualidade da analgesia per e pós-operatória. O bloqueio peridural torácico, com indicaçäo criteriosa, pode ser utilizado com bons resultados


Subject(s)
Humans , Infant , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthesia, Epidural , Anesthetics, Combined , Ductus Arteriosus, Patent/surgery , Halothane/pharmacokinetics , Midazolam/pharmacokinetics , Thoracic Vertebrae , Thoracotomy
20.
Rev. argent. anestesiol ; 59(4): 226-235, jul.-ago. 2001. ilus, graf
Article in Spanish | BINACIS | ID: bin-7642

ABSTRACT

La finalidad del presente trabajo consiste en brindar una visión actualizada sobre los mecanismos fisiológicos de control de la función respiratoria durante el estado de vigilia, el sueño fisiológico y la anestesia general, y los efectos de la premedicación, los anestésicos generales y otras drogas empleadas en la práctica anestésica sobre la regulación ventilatoria. El mejor conocimiento de los procesos mencionados permite prevenir situaciones que, eventualmente, colocan en riesgo la salud y la vida del paciente. (AU)


Subject(s)
Humans , Pulmonary Ventilation/physiology , Pulmonary Ventilation/drug effects , Respiratory Physiological Phenomena , Neurotransmitter Agents/pharmacokinetics , Anesthesia, General , Anesthesia Recovery Period , Wakefulness/physiology , Sleep/physiology , Chemoreceptor Cells , Hypercapnia/physiopathology , Hypoxia/physiopathology , Anesthetics, Inhalation/pharmacokinetics , Anesthetics, Intravenous/pharmacokinetics
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