Marine Bacillus haynesii chitinase: Purification, characterization and antifungal potential for sustainable chitin bioconversion.

The development of chitinase tailored for the bioconversion of chitin to chitin oligosaccharides has attracted significant attention due to its potential to alleviate environmental pollution associated with chemical conversion processes. In this present investigation, we purified extracellular chitinase derived from marine Bacillus haynesii to homogeneity and subsequently characterized it. The molecular weight of BhChi was approximately 35 kDa. BhChi displayed its peak catalytic activity at pH 6.0, with an optimal temperature of 37 °C. It exhibited stability across a pH range of 6.0-9.0. In addition, BhChi showed activation in the presence of Mn2+ with the improved activity of 105 U mL-1. Ca2+ and Fe2+ metal ions did not have any significant impact on enzyme activity. Under the optimized enzymatic conditions, there was a notable enhancement in catalytic activity on colloidal chitin with Km of 0.01 mg mL-1 and Vmax of 5.75 mmol min-1. Kcat and catalytic efficiency were measured at 1.91 s-1 and 191 mL mg-1 s-1, respectively. The product profiling of BhChi using thin layer chromatography and Mass spectrometric techniques hinted an exochitinase mode of action with chitobiose and N-Acetyl glucosamine as the products. This study represents the first report on an exochitinase from Bacillus haynesii. Furthermore, the chitinase showcased promising antifungal properties against key pathogens, Fusarium oxysporum and Penicillium chrysogenum, reinforcing its potential as a potent biocontrol agent.

Synergistic biocementation: harnessing Comamonas and Bacillus ureolytic bacteria for enhanced sand stabilization.

Biocementation, driven by ureolytic bacteria and their biochemical activities, has evolved as a powerful technology for soil stabilization, crack repair, and bioremediation. Ureolytic bacteria play a crucial role in calcium carbonate precipitation through their enzymatic activity, hydrolyzing urea to produce carbonate ions and elevate pH, thus creating favorable conditions for the precipitation of calcium carbonate. While extensive research has explored the ability of ureolytic bacteria isolated from natural environments or culture conditions, bacterial synergy is often unexplored or under-reported. In this study, we isolated bacterial strains from the local eutrophic river canal and evaluated their suitability for precipitating calcium carbonate polymorphs. We identified two distinct bacterial isolates with superior urea degradation ability (conductivity method) using partial 16 S rRNA gene sequencing. Molecular identification revealed that they belong to the Comamonas and Bacillus genera. Urea degradation analysis was performed under diverse pH (6,7 and 8) and temperature (15 °C,20 °C,25 °C and 30 °C) ranges, indicating that their ideal pH is 7 and temperature is 30 °C since 95% of the urea was degraded within 96 h. In addition, we investigated these strains individually and in combination, assessing their microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) in silicate fine sand under low (14 ± 0.6 °C) and ideal temperature 30 °C conditions, aiming to optimize bio-mediated soil enhancement. Results indicated that 30 °C was the ideal temperature, and combining bacteria resulted in significant (p ≤ 0.001) superior carbonate precipitation (14-16%) and permeability (> 10- 6 m/s) in comparison to the average range of individual strains. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential of combining ureolytic bacteria for future MICP research on field applications including soil erosion mitigation, soil stabilization, ground improvement, and heavy metal remediation.

Unlocking the potential of Algerian lignocellulosic biomass: exploring indigenous microbial diversity for enhanced enzyme and sugar production.

Nowadays, natural resources like lignocellulosic biomass are gaining more and more attention. This study was conducted to analyse chemical composition of dried and ground samples (500 µm) of various Algerian bioresources including alfa stems (AS), dry palms (DP), olive pomace (OP), pinecones (PC), and tomato waste (TW). AS exhibited the lowest lignin content (3.60 ± 0.60%), but the highest cellulose (58.30 ± 2.06%), and hemicellulose (20.00 ± 3.07%) levels. DP, OP, and PC had around 30% cellulose, and 10% hemicellulose. OP had the highest lignin content (29.00 ± 6.40%), while TW contained (15.70 ± 2.67% cellulose, 13.70 ± 0.002% hemicellulose, and 17.90 ± 4.00% lignin). Among 91 isolated microorganisms, nine were selected for cellulase, xylanase, and/or laccase production. The ability of Bacillus mojavensis to produce laccase and cellulase, as well as B. safensis to produce cellulase and xylanase, is being reported for the first time. In submerged conditions, TW was the most suitable substrate for enzyme production. In this conditions, T. versicolor K1 was the only strain able to produce laccase (4,170 ± 556 U/L). Additionally, Coniocheata hoffmannii P4 exhibited the highest cellulase activity (907.62 ± 26.22 U/L), and B. mojavensis Y3 the highest xylanase activity (612.73 ± 12.73 U/L). T. versicolor K1 culture showed reducing sugars accumulation of 18.87% compared to initial concentrations. Sucrose was the predominant sugar detected by HPLC analysis (13.44 ± 0.02 g/L). Our findings suggest that T. versicolor K1 holds promise for laccase production, while TW represents a suitable substrate for sucrose production.

Engineering a Carotenoid Cleavage Oxygenase for Coenzyme-Free Synthesis of Vanillin from Ferulic Acid.

One-pot biosynthesis of vanillin from ferulic acid without providing energy and cofactors adds significant value to lignin waste streams. However, naturally evolved carotenoid cleavage oxygenase (CCO) with extreme catalytic conditions greatly limited the above pathway for vanillin bioproduction. Herein, CCO from Thermothelomyces thermophilus (TtCCO) was rationally engineered for achieving high catalytic activity under neutral pH conditions and was further utilized for constructing a one-pot synthesis system of vanillin with Bacillus pumilus ferulic acid decarboxylase. TtCCO with the K192N-V310G-A311T-R404N-D407F-N556A mutation (TtCCOM3) was gradually obtained using substrate access channel engineering, catalytic pocket engineering, and pocket charge engineering. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that reducing the site-blocking effect in the substrate access channel, enhancing affinity for substrates in the catalytic pocket, and eliminating the pocket's alkaline charge contributed to the high catalytic activity of TtCCOM3 under neutral pH conditions. Finally, the one-pot synthesis of vanillin in our study could achieve a maximum rate of up to 6.89 ± 0.3 mM h-1. Therefore, our study paves the way for a one-pot biosynthetic process of transforming renewable lignin-related aromatics into valuable chemicals.

Ultrarobust stable ABTS radical cation prepared using Spore@Cu-TMA biocomposites for antioxidant capacity assay.

Herein, spore@Cu-trimesic acid (TMA) biocomposites were prepared by self-assembling Cu-based metal-organic framework on the surface of Bacillus velezensis spores. The laccase-like activity of spore@Cu-TMA biocomposites was enhanced by 14.9 times compared with that of pure spores due to the reaction of Cu2+ ions with laccase on the spore surface and the microporous structure of Cu-TMA shell promoting material transport and increasing substrate accessibility. Spore@Cu-TMA rapidly oxidized and transformed 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) into ABTS●+ without using H2O2. Under optimum conditions, the ABTS●+ could be stored for 21 days at 4 °C and 7 days at 37 °C without the addition of any stabilizers, allowing for the large-scale preparation and long-term storage of ABTS●+. The ultrarobust stable ABTS●+ obtained with the use of Cu-TMA could effectively reduce the "back reaction" by preventing the leaching of the metabolites released by the spores. On the basis of these findings, a rapid, low-cost, and eco-friendly colorimetric platform was successfully developed for the detection of antioxidant capacity. Determination of antioxidant capacity for several antioxidants such as caffeic acid, glutathione, and Trolox revealed their corresponding limits of detection at 4.83, 8.89, and 7.39 nM, respectively, with linear ranges of 0.01-130, 0.01-140, and 0.01-180 µM, respectively. This study provides a facile way to prepare ultrarobust stable ABTS●+ and presents a potential application of spore@Cu-TMA biocomposites in food detection and bioanalysis.

Antagonistic and enzymatic activities of Bacillus species isolated from the fish gastrointestinal tract as potential probiotics use in Artemia culture.

Probiotics have been used successfully in aquaculture to enhance disease resistance, nutrition, and/or growth of cultured organisms. Six strains of Bacillus were isolated from the intestinal tracts of fish and recognised by conventional biochemical traits. The six isolated strains were Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis using MALDI-TOF-MS technique. The probiotic properties of these Bacillus strains were studied. The tested bacillus strains exhibit antibacterial activity against the different pathogens. The strain S5 gave the important inhibition zones against most pathogens (20.5, 20.33, 23, and 21 mm against Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium, respectively). According to our results, all Bacillus strains have extracellular components that can stop pathogenic bacteria from growing. The enzymatic characterization showed that the tested strains can produce several biotechnological enzymes such as α-glucosidase, naphtol-AS-BI-Phosphohydrolase, esterase lipase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, lipase, caseinase, and lecithinase. All Bacillus strains were adhesive to polystyrene. The adding Bacillus strains to the Artemia culture exerted significantly greater effects on the survival of Artemia. The challenge test on Artemia culture showed that the protection against pathogenic Vibrio was improved. These findings allow us to recommend the examined strains as prospective probiotic options for the Artemia culture, which will be used as food additives to improve the culture conditions of crustacean larvae and marine fish.

Thermo-Alkali-Tolerant Recombinant Laccase from Bacillus swezeyi and Its Degradation Potential against Zearalenone and Aflatoxin B1.

The enzymatic biodegradation of mycotoxins in food and feed has attracted the most interest in recent years. In this paper, the laccase gene from Bacillus swezeyi was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL 21(D3). The sequence analysis indicated that the gene consisted of 1533 bp. The purified B. swezeyi laccase was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis -12% with an estimated molecular weight of 56.7 kDa. The enzyme is thermo-alkali-tolerant, displaying the optimal degradation of zearalenone (ZEN) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) at pH 8 and 9, with incubation temperatures of 55 and 50 °C, respectively, within 24 h. The degradation potentials of the 50 µg of the enzyme against ZEN (5.0 µg/mL) and AFB1 (2.5 µg/mL) were 99.60 and 96.73%, respectively, within 24 h. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study revealing the recombinant production of laccase from B. swezeyi, its biochemical properties, and potential use in ZEN and AFB1 degradation in vitro and in vivo.

Utilizing immobilized recombinant serine alkaline protease from Bacillus safensis lab418 in wound healing: Gene cloning, heterologous expression, optimization, and characterization.

Microbial proteases have proven their efficiency in various industrial applications; however, their application in accelerating the wound healing process has been inconsistent in previous studies. In this study, heterologous expression was used to obtain an over-yielding of the serine alkaline protease. The serine protease-encoding gene aprE was isolated from Bacillus safensis lab 418 and expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) using the pET28a (+) expression vector. The gene sequence was assigned the accession number OP610065 in the NCBI GenBank. The open reading frame of the recombinant protease (aprEsaf) was 383 amino acids, with a molecular weight of 35 kDa. The yield of aprEsaf increased to 300 U/mL compared with the native serine protease (SAFWD), with a maximum yield of 77.43 U/mL after optimization conditions. aprEsaf was immobilized on modified amine-functionalized films (MAFs). By comparing the biochemical characteristics of immobilized and free recombinant enzymes, the former exhibited distinctive biochemical characteristics: improved thermostability, alkaline stability over a wider pH range, and efficient reusability. The immobilized serine protease was effectively utilized to expedite wound healing. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the suitability of the immobilized recombinant serine protease for wound healing, suggesting that it is a viable alternative therapeutic agent for wound management.

A new physical and biological strategy to reduce the content of zearalenone in infected wheat kernels: the effect of cold needle perforation, microorganisms, and purified enzyme.

With the aim of reintroducing wheat grains naturally contaminated with mycotoxins into the food value chain, a decontamination strategy was developed in this study. For this purpose, in a first step, the whole wheat kernels were pre-treated using cold needle perforation. The pore size was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy and the accessibility of enzymes and microorganisms determined using fluorescent markers in the size range of enzymes (5 nm) and microorganisms (10 µm), and fluorescent microscopy. The perforated wheat grains, as well as non-perforated grains as controls, were then incubated with selected microorganisms (Bacillus megaterium Myk145 and B. licheniformis MA572) or with the enzyme ZHD518. The two bacilli strains were not able to significantly reduce the amount of zearalenone (ZEA), neither in the perforated nor in the non-perforated wheat kernels in comparison with the controls. In contrast, the enzyme ZHD518 significantly reduced the initial concentration of ZEA in the perforated and non-perforated wheat kernels in comparison with controls. Moreover, in vitro incubation of ZHD518 with ZEA showed the presence of two non-estrogenic degradation products of ZEA: hydrolysed zearalenone (HZEA) and decarboxylated hydrolysed ZEA (DHZEA). In addition, the physical pre-treatment led to a reduction in detectable mycotoxin contents in a subset of samples. Overall, this study emphasizes the promising potential of combining physical pre-treatment approaches with biological decontamination solutions in order to address the associated problem of mycotoxin contamination and food waste reduction.

Biodegradation of Keratin Waste by Bacillus velezensis HFS_F2 through Optimized Keratinase Production Medium.

Enormous aggregates of keratinous wastes are produced annually by the poultry and leather industries which cause environmental degradation globally. To combat this issue, microbially synthesized extracellular proteases known as keratinase are used widely which is effective in degrading keratin found in hair and feathers. In the present work, keratinolytic bacteria were isolated from poultry farm soil and feather waste, and various cultural conditions were optimized to provide the highest enzyme production for efficient keratin waste degradation. Based on the primary and secondary screening methods, the potent keratinolytic strain (HFS_F2T) with the highest enzyme activity 32.65 ± 0.16 U/mL was genotypically characterized by 16S rRNA sequencing and was confirmed as Bacillus velezensis HFS_F2T ON556508. Through one-variable-at-a-time approach (OVAT), the keratinase production medium was optimized with sucrose (carbon source), beef extract (nitrogen source) pH-7, inoculum size (5%), and incubation at 37 °C). The degree of degradation (%DD) of keratin wastes was evaluated after 35 days of degradation in the optimized keratinase production medium devoid of feather meal under submerged fermentation conditions. Further, the deteriorated keratin wastes were visually examined and the hydrolysed bovine hair with 77.32 ± 0.32% degradation was morphologically analysed through Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) to confirm the structural disintegration of the cuticle. Therefore, the current study would be a convincing strategy for reducing the detrimental impact of pollutants from the poultry and leather industries by efficient keratin waste degradation through the production of microbial keratinase.

Bacillus velezensis strain NA16 shows high poultry feather-degrading efficiency, protease and amino acid production.

Isolated Bacillus velezensis strain NA16, which produces proteases, amino acids and the transcription levels of different keratinolytic enzymes and disulfide reductase genes in whole gene sequencing, was evaluated during feather degradation. The result shows under optimum fermentation conditions, chicken feather fermentation showed total amino acid concentration of 7599 mg/L, degradation efficiency of 99.3% at 72 h, and protease activity of 1058 U/mL and keratinase activity of 288 U/mL at 48 h. Goose feather fermentation showed total amino acid concentration of 4918 mg/L (96 h), and degradation efficiency was 98.9% at 120 h. Chicken feather fermentation broth at 72 h showed high levels of 17 amino acids, particularly phenylalanine (1050 ± 1.90 mg/L), valine (960 ± 1.04 mg/L), and glutamic (950 ± 3.00 mg/L). Scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared analysis revealed the essential role of peptide bond cleavage in structural changes and degradation of feathers. Protein purification and zymographic analyses revealed a key role in feather degradation of the 39-kDa protein encoded by gene1031, identified as an S8 family serine peptidase. Whole genome sequencing of NA16 revealed 26 metalloproteinase genes and 22 serine protease genes. Among the proteins, S8 family serine peptidase (gene1031, gene1428) and S9 family peptidase (gene3132) were shown by transcription analysis to play major roles in chicken feather degradation. These findings revealed the transcription levels of different families of keratinolytic enzymes in the degradation of feather keratin by microorganisms, and suggested potential applications of NA16 in feather waste management and amino acid production.

Chitosanase-immobilized magnetite-agar gel particles as a highly stable and reusable biocatalyst for enhanced production of physiologically active chitosan oligosaccharides.

A novel immobilized chitosanase was developed and utilized to produce chitosan oligosaccharides (COSs) via chitosan hydrolysis. Magnetite-agar gel particles (average particle diameter: 338 µm) were prepared by emulsifying an aqueous agar solution dispersing 200-nm magnetite particles with isooctane containing an emulsifier at 80 °C, followed by cooling the emulsified mixture. The chitosanase from Bacillus pumilus was immobilized on the magnetite-agar gel particles chemically activated by introducing glyoxyl groups with high immobilization yields (>80%), and the observed specific activity of the immobilized chitosanase was 16% of that of the free enzyme. This immobilized chitosanase could be rapidly recovered from aqueous solutions by applying magnetic force. The thermal stability of the immobilized chitosanase improved remarkably compared with that of free chitosanase: the deactivation rate constants at 35 °C of the free and immobilized enzymes were 8.1 × 10-5 and 3.9 × 10-8 s-1, respectively. This immobilized chitosanase could be reused for chitosan hydrolysis at 75 °C and pH 5.6, and 80% of its initial activity was maintained even after 10 cycles of use. COSs with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 2-7 were obtained using this immobilized chitosanase, and the product content of physiologically active COSs (DP ≥ 5) reached approximately 50%.

Site-Directed Mutagenesis: Improving the Acid Resistance and Thermostability of Bacillus velezensis α-Amylase and Its Preliminary Feed Application.

The current study aimed to improve the acid resistance and thermostability of Bacillus velezensis α-amylase through site-directed mutagenesis, with a specific focus on its applicability to the feed industry. Four mutation sites, P546E, H572D, A614E, and K622E, were designed in the C domain of α-amylase, and three mutants, Mut1 (E), Mut2 (ED), and Mut3 (EDEE), were produced. The results showed that the specific activity of Mut3 was 50 U/mg higher than the original α-amylase (Ori) after incubation at 40 °C for 4 h. Compared to Ori, the acid resistance of Mut3 showed a twofold increase in specific activity at pH 2.0. Moreover, the results of preliminary feed hydrolysis were compared between Ori and Mut3 by designing three factors, three levels of orthogonal experiment for enzymatic hydrolysis time, feed quantity, and amount of amylase. It was observed that the enzymatic hydrolysis time and feed quantity showed an extremely significant difference (p < 0.01) in Mut3 compared to Ori. However, the amount of enzyme showed significant (p < 0.05) improvement in the enzymatic hydrolysis in Mut3 as compared to Ori. The study identified Mut3 as a promising candidate for the application of α-amylase in the feed industry.

A polylactic acid degrading lipase from Bacillus safensis: Characterization and structural analysis.

A polylactic acid degrading triacylglycerol lipase (TGL) was identified from Bacillus safensis based on genome annotation and validated by real-time quantitative PCR. TGL displayed optimal activity at pH 9.0 and 55 °C. It maintained stability at pH 9.0 and temperatures 45 °C. The activity of TGL was found to benefit from the presence of potassium sodium ions, and low concentrations of Triton X-100. The TGL could erode the surface of polylactic acid films and increase its hydrophilicity. The hydrolysis products of polylactic acid by TGL were lactate monomer and dimer. TGL contains a classical catalytic triad structure of lipase (Ser77, Asp133, and His156) and an Ala-X-Ser-X-Gly sequence. Compared with some lipases produced by the same genus Bacillus, TGL is highly conserved in its amino acid sequence, mainly reflected in the amino acid residues that exercise the enzyme activity, including the catalytic activity center and the substrate binding sites.

Expression and biochemical characterization of a novel thermostable alkaline ß-1,3-1,4-glucanase (lichenase) from an alkaliphilic Bacillus lehensis G1.

New thermostable ß-1,3-1,4-glucanase (lichenase) designated as Blg29 was expressed and purified from a locally isolated alkaliphilic bacteria Bacillus lehensis G1. The genome sequence of B. lehensis predicted an open reading frame of Blg29 with a deduced of 249 amino acids and a molecular weight of 28.99 kDa. The gene encoding for Blg29 was successfully amplified via PCR and subsequently expressed as a recombinant protein using the E. coli expression system. Recombinant Blg29 was produced as a soluble form and further purified via immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC). Based on biochemical characterization, recombinant Blg29 showed optimal activity at pH9 and temperature 60 °C respectively. This enzyme was stable for more than 2 h, incubated at 50 °C, and could withstand ∼50 % of its activity at 70 °C for an hour and a half. No significant effect on Blg29 was observed when incubated with metal ions except for a small increase with ion Ca2+. Blg29 showed high substrate activity towards lichenan where Vm, Km, Kcat, and kcat/Km values were 2040.82 µmolmin‾1mg‾1, 4.69 mg/mL, and 986.39 s‾1 and 210.32 mLs‾1mg‾1 respectively. The high thermostability and activity make this enzyme useable for a broad prospect in industry applications.

Purification, and characterization of detergent-compatible serine protease from Bacillussafensis strain PRN1: A sustainable alternative to hazardous chemicals in detergent industry.

Owing to vast therapeutic, commercial, and industrial applications of microbial proteases microorganisms from different sources are being explored. In this regard, the gut microbiota of Monopteruscuchia were isolated and examined for the production of protease. All the isolates were primarily and secondarily screened on skim milk and gelatin agar plates. The protease-positive isolates were characterized morphologically, biochemically, and molecularly. Out of the 20 isolated strains,6 belonging to five different genera viz.Bacillus,Priestia,Aeromonas,Staphylococcus, and Serratia demonstrated proteolytic activity. Bacillussafensis strain PRN1 demonstrated the highest protease production and, thus, the largest hydrolytic clear zones in both skim milk agar (15 ± 1 mm) and gelatin (16 ± 1 mm) plates. The optimized parameters (time, pH, temperature, carbon, nitrogen) for highest protease activity and microbial growth of B.safensis strain PRN1 includes 72 h (OD600 = 0.56,1303 U/mL), pH 8 (OD600 = 0.83, 403.29 U/mL), 40 °C (OD600 = 1.75, 1849.11 U/mL), fructose (OD600 = 1.22, 1502 U/mL), and gelatin (OD600 = 1.88, 1015.33 U/mL). The enzyme was purified to homogeneity using salt-precipitation and gel filtration chromatography. The sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) demonstrated that the purified enzyme was a monomer of a molecular weight of ∼33 kDa. The protease demonstrated optimal activity at pH 8 and 60 °C. It was strongly inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), demonstrating that it belongs to the serine-proteases family. The compatibility of the enzyme with surfactants and commercial detergents demonstrates its potential use in the detergent industry. Furthermore, the purified enzyme showed antibacterial and blood-stain removal properties.

Synthesis of Pharmaceutically Relevant Arylamines Enabled by a Nitroreductase from Bacillus tequilensis.

Arylamines are essential building blocks for the manufacture of valuable pharmaceuticals, pigments and dyes. However, their current industrial production involves the use of chemocatalytic procedures with a significant environmental impact. As a result, flavin-dependent nitroreductases (NRs) have received increasing attention as sustainable catalysts for more ecofriendly synthesis of arylamines. In this study, we assessed a novel NR from Bacillus tequilensis, named BtNR, for the synthesis of pharmaceutically relevant arylamines, including valuable synthons used in the manufacture of blockbuster drugs such as vismodegib, sonidegib, linezolid and sildenafil. After optimizing the enzymatic reaction conditions, high conversion of nitroaromatics to arylamines (up to 97 %) and good product yields (up to 56 %) were achieved. Our results indicate that BtNR has a broad substrate scope, including bulky nitro benzenes, nitro pyrazoles and nitro pyridines. Hence, BtNR is an interesting biocatalyst for the synthesis of pharmaceutically relevant amine-functionalized aromatics, providing an attractive alternative to traditional chemical synthesis methodologies.

Approach towards sustainable leather: Characterization and effective industrial application of proteases from Bacillus sps. for ecofriendly dehairing of leather hide.

Tanneries are one of the most polluted industries known for production of massive amount of solid and liquid wastes without proper management and disposal. In this project we demonstrated the ecofriendly single step dehairing of leather hides with minimum pollution load. In this study, Bacillus species (Bacillus paralicheniformis strain BL.HK, Bacillus cereus strain BS.P) capable of producing proteases was successfully isolated by employing the new optimized selective media named M9-PEA as confirmed by 16sRNA genes sequencing. Sequence of 1493 bp long 16S rRNA genes of Bacillus paralicheniformis strain BL.HK and Bacillus cereus strain BS. P was submitted to GenBank under the accession number OP612692.1, OP612721.1 respectively The Bacillus paralicheniformis strain BL.HK, Bacillus cereus strain BS.P produced extracellur proteases of 28 and 37 KDa as resolved by SDS-PAGE respectively. The enzymes showed temperature optima at 50 °C and 55 °C and pH optima at 8.5, 9.5 respectively. The Proteases of Bacillus paralicheniformis strain BL.HK, Bacillus cereus strain BS.P were employed for dehairing of animal hides. The process resulted in significant removal of interfibriller substances without damage to collagen layer after one hour treatment, which was confirmed by histology, scanning electron microscopy. The quantification of various skin constituents (collagen, uronic acid, hexosamines, and GAGs) and pollution load parameters revealed that enzymatic treatment are more reliable. The results of skin application trials at industrial level with complete elimination of chemicals remark the biotechnological potential of these proteases for ecofriendly dehairing of animal hides without affecting the quality of the leathers produced.

Tartrate Dehydrogenase in Bacillus Species: Deciphering Unique Catalytic Diversity Through Kinetic, Structural and Molecular Docking Analysis.

Divergently evolved Tartrate dehydrogenase (TDH) exhibits multiple catalytic activities at a single active site; the enzyme from P. putida (pTDH) being structurally and biochemically well-characterized. Occurrence of TDH-associated ability to aerobically metabolize L-tartrate in Bacillus isolates and limited resemblance of ycsA-encoded protein sequences with pTDH rendered Bacillus TDH as an intriguing enzyme with possible catalytic diversity as well as evolutionary significance. The present study explores substrate interactions of TDHs from B. subtilis 168 (168bTDH) and B. licheniformis DSM-13 (429bTDH) through kinetic, structural and molecular docking-based analysis. Heterologously expressed bTDHs, purified from insoluble fractions of E. coli BL21(DE3) cells, could significantly catalyze L-tartrate and meso-tartrate as substrates in forward reaction. Unlike pTDH, bTDHs distinctly and more efficiently catalyzed the reverse reaction using dihydroxyfumarate substrate following sigmoidal kinetics; the ability being ~ 4 fold higher in 168bTDH. Their binding energies predicted from molecular docking, further substantiated the relative substrate specificities, while revealing major residues involved in protein-ligand interactions at active site. The kinetic analysis and homology modelling validated using Ramachandran Plot analysis predicted a dimeric nature for bTDH. Collectively, the results highlight unique catalytic potential of phylogenetically recent bTDHs, offering an important protein engineering target to mediate efficient enantioselective enzymatic biotransformations.

Unfolding Individual Domains of BmrA, a Bacterial ABC Transporter Involved in Multidrug Resistance.

The folding and stability of proteins are often studied via unfolding (and refolding) a protein with urea. Yet, in the case of membrane integral protein domains, which are shielded by a membrane or a membrane mimetic, urea generally does not induce unfolding. However, the unfolding of α-helical membrane proteins may be induced by the addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). When protein unfolding is followed via monitoring changes in Trp fluorescence characteristics, the contributions of individual Trp residues often cannot be disentangled, and, consequently, the folding and stability of the individual domains of a multi-domain membrane protein cannot be studied. In this study, the unfolding of the homodimeric bacterial ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter Bacillus multidrug resistance ATP (BmrA), which comprises a transmembrane domain and a cytosolic nucleotide-binding domain, was investigated. To study the stability of individual BmrA domains in the context of the full-length protein, the individual domains were silenced by mutating the existent Trps. The SDS-induced unfolding of the corresponding constructs was compared to the (un)folding characteristics of the wild-type (wt) protein and isolated domains. The full-length variants BmrAW413Y and BmrAW104YW164A were able to mirror the changes observed with the isolated domains; thus, these variants allowed for the study of the unfolding and thermodynamic stability of mutated domains in the context of full-length BmrA.