Lifting COVID-19-associated non-pharmaceutical interventions: potential impact on notifications of infectious diseases transmitted from person to person in 2022 in Bavaria, Germany.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic and associated non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) have led to substantial decreases in case numbers of infectious diseases in several countries worldwide. As NPIs were gradually lifted, intense or out-of-season outbreaks of respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases were reported, raising the hypothesis of a potential catch-up effect of infections. By analysing surveillance data from the federal reporting system for notifiable infectious diseases, we aimed to assess the potential impact of lifting COVID-19 associated NPIs on notifications of selected infectious diseases in Bavaria, 2022. Methods: We compared influenza, chickenpox, norovirus gastroenteritis, rotavirus gastroenteritis weekly case numbers in a pre-pandemic period (2016-2019) and 2022 using two time series analyses approaches: (i) a predictive model forecasting weekly case numbers for the pandemic years 2020-2022, based on 2016-2019 data, (ii) interrupted time series model, based on 2016-2022 data, including a term per pandemic period. Results: In 2022, incidence rates were higher compared to pre-pandemic period for influenza (IRR = 3.47, 95%CI: 1.49-7.94) and rotavirus gastroenteritis (IRR = 1.36, 95%CI: 0.95-1.93), though not significant for rotavirus gastroenteritis. Conversely, case numbers remained significantly below pre-pandemic levels for chickenpox (IRR = 0.52, 95%CI: 0.41-0.65) and norovirus gastroenteritis (IRR = 0.59, 95%CI: 0.42-0.82). Seasonality changed notably for influenza, showing an earlier influenza wave compared to pre-pandemic periods. Conclusion: The lifting of NPIs was associated with heterogenic epidemiological patterns depending on the selected disease. The full impact of NPIs and their discontinuation may only become clear with continued monitoring and assessment of potential additional contributing factors.

Population immunity to varicella in Canada: A Canadian Immunization Research Network (CIRN) study.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of varicella in Canada has decreased by almost 99% since vaccination was introduced. However, variation in the timing and eligibility of vaccination programs across the country has resulted in some cohorts being under-vaccinated and therefore potentially susceptible to infection. METHODS: We used nationally representative specimens from the Biobank of Statistics Canada's Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS) as well as residual specimens from Ontario collected between 2009-2014 to estimate population immunity across age-groups and geography, and identify any groups at increased risk of varicella infection. RESULTS: The weighted proportion of specimens with antibody levels above the threshold of protection was 93.6% (95% CI: 92.4, 95.0). Protection was lowest among those aged 3-5 years (54.3%; 95% CI: 47.3, 61.4), but increased with age. Individuals born outside Canada had more than twice the odds of varicella susceptibility than those born in Canada (aOR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.4, 5.0; p = 0.004). There were no differences by sex or geography within Canada, and there were no statistically significant differences when Ontario CHMS sera were compared to Ontario residual sera, apart from in participants aged 12-19 year age-group, for whom the CHMS estimate (91.2%; 95% CI: 86.7, 95.7) was significantly higher (p = 0.03) than that from residual specimens (85.9%, 95% CI: 81.1, 90.8). DISCUSSION: Varicella immunity in Canada is changing. Children appear to have low population immunity, placing them at greater risk of infection and at increased risk of severe disease as they age. Our results underscore the importance of performing periodic serosurveys to monitor further population immunity changes as the proportion of vaccine-eligible birth-cohorts increases, and to continually assess the risk of outbreaks.

Monkeypox and chickenpox co-infection in a person living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

INTRODUCTION: The 2022 mpox global outbreak underscores the need for an improved understanding of mpox epidemiology, co-morbidities, and clinical management/outcome. We report a case of a 30-year-old Nigerian antiretroviral treatment-experienced person living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) who had PCR-confirmed mpox and chickenpox co-infection. CASE PRESENTATION: The patient presented with a generalized itchy rash of three weeks and antecedent low-grade fever. He had no recent travel, animal exposure, or same-sex relationship. Examination revealed generalized pustular and nodular eruptions without peripheral lymphadenopathy. RESULTS: CD4 count was 78 cells/mm3, wound swab microscopy revealed Gram-positive cocci in clusters and Gram-negative bacilli while culture yielded Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Despite supportive care and definitive antimicrobial therapy, his clinical condition deteriorated with sepsis-related multi-organ dysfunction and ultimately death. CONCLUSIONS: Mpox and chickenpox co-infection may occur, with potentially fatal complications in the setting of advanced HIV disease. Increased surveillance for co-viral infections in PLHIV with febrile exanthema and aggressive management to improve outcome are recommended.

Live Vaccine and Varicella Postexposure Prophylaxis in Pediatric Liver Transplant Recipients: A Survey of Practice in Australia and New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: Administration of live vaccines following liver transplant (LT) has historically not been recommended due to concerns regarding risk of vaccine-attenuated disease. However, there is evidence suggesting that in select transplant recipients live vaccinations can be administered safely. Studies in other regions have indicated that despite this evidence many clinicians remain hesitant to administer live vaccinations. METHOD: A REDCap survey was distributed to gastroenterologists, pediatricians, and infectious diseases physicians at pediatric centers across Australia and New Zealand via email between September and November 2023. The survey included a series of questions regarding live vaccine and varicella postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) practices in pediatric LT recipients and barriers to live vaccine administration in this cohort. RESULTS: There was a total of 16 responses to the survey, from 10 different pediatric centers, including 10/11 pediatric gastroenterology centers and all four pediatric LT centers in the region. Only 31% (5/16) of respondents (from 3/10 different centers) offer live vaccines. The main barrier to live vaccine administration was clinician reluctance and the main reason for not offering live vaccines was insufficient safety data. Sixty-nine percent (11/16) of respondents take vaccination status and/or serology into account when deciding whether to offer varicella PEP to this cohort. Respondents universally offer varicella zoster immunoglobulin as PEP, though 31% (5/16) also offer antiviral medication. CONCLUSIONS: Many clinicians in our region remain hesitant to provide live vaccines to pediatric LT recipients, with concerns regarding insufficient safety data. Updated local guidelines may help to address this.

An adult with hemorrhagic varicella co-infects with cytomegalovirus: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Hemorrhagic varicella (HV) is a particular form of chicken pox.,with high mortality in adults. This form of the disease is rare, to date, approximately 4 cases have been reported. Occasional cases of HV have been documented in adults with hematologic disorders or other diseases. While there is one reported case of simultaneous reactivation of cytomegalovirus in an adult with chickenpox, there is a lack of information regarding changes in liver function indicators for such patients. This is unfortunate, as CMV reactivation can further exacerbate liver failure and increase mortality. In this report, we present a case of hemorrhagic varicella reactivation with cytomegalovirus and provide some relevant discussions. CASE PRESENTATION: We present the case of a 25-year-old male with HV, who had a history of nephrotic syndrome generally controlled with orally administered prednisone at a dosage of 50 mg per day for two months. The patient arrived at the emergency room with complaints of abdominal pain and the presence of hemorrhagic vesicles on his body for the past 3 days. Despite medical evaluation, a clear diagnosis was not immediately determined. Upon admission, the leukocyte count was recorded as 20.96 × 109/L on the first day, leading to the initiation of broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment. Despite the general interpretation that a positive IgG and a negative IgM indicate a previous infection, the patient's extraordinarily elevated IgG levels, coupled with a markedly increased CMV DNA quantification, prompted us to suspect a reactivation of the CMV virus. In light of these findings, we opted for the intravenous administration of ganciclovir as part of the treatment strategy. Unfortunately,,the patient succumbed to rapidly worsening symptoms and passed away. Within one week of the patient's demise, chickenpox gradually developed in the medical staff who had been in contact with him. In such instances, we speculate that the patient's diagnosis should be classified as a rare case of hemorrhagic varicella. CONCLUSION: Swift identification and timely administration of suitable treatment for adult HV are imperative to enhance prognosis.

Seroprevalence of antibodies against varicella zoster virus across all age groups during the post-COVID-19 pandemic period in Chonburi Province, Thailand.

As of 2024, Thailand has not incorporated the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) vaccine into the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI). This study aimed to evaluate VZV seroprevalence across all age groups in Chonburi Province, Thailand, during the post-COVID-19 era, and to support the development of a vaccination plan against VZV. A total of 950 participants were enrolled from October 2022 to January 2023. VZV antibody levels were measured using ELISA kits (EUROIMMUN, Lübeck, Germany), with seropositivity set at ≥110 IU/L. The overall VZV seropositivity rate was 64.8%, similar to rates in 1994 and 2014. However, seropositivity rates for the 5-9, 10-14, and 15-19 age groups were significantly higher in the 1994 study, and for the 10-14 and 15-19 age groups in the 2014 study, indicating a declining trend among young Thai individuals. The seropositivity rate increased with age, with a seroprevalence exceeding 80% in individuals aged 30 years and older. Our study found a significant association between the history of varicella and seropositivity. Thus, a positive history may indicate immunity. In conclusion, a significant portion of Thai adolescents are still vulnerable to varicella, highlighting the crucial role of vaccination in averting serious illness.

Analysis of the implementation effect and evaluation of the vaccine protection effect of the live attenuated varicella vaccine program for school-age children in Bao'an district of Shenzhen,China.

The objective of the study is to analyze the implementation effect of the Live Attenuated Varicella Vaccine (VarV) Vaccination Program for eligible children in Bao'an District, Shenzhen, and evaluate the vaccine effectiveness. Children's vaccination data was obtained from the Shenzhen Immunization Planning Information Management System, while varicella case data came from the China Disease Prevention and Control Information System. The Joinpoint regression method examined vaccination rate trends, and a retrospective cohort study assessed vaccine effectiveness. After program implementation, VarV vaccination rates significantly increased, surpassing provincial and national averages. Overall incidence declined 54.6% across age groups, with the largest reductions among 7- and 6-year-olds. One year post-vaccination, single-dose vaccine effectiveness was 91.1% (95% CI: 79.2% to 96.2%). However, two doses remained 91.4% effective(95% CI: 89.1% to 93.2%) after 7 years. Overall, Shenzhen's VarV program achieved positive results. For children under six, routine immunization with two doses of VarV should be strengthened. Furthermore, we recommend that physicians conduct thorough inquiries to ascertain patients' vaccination history and previous varicella infections. This will enable doctors to provide tailored vaccination recommendations based on comprehensive, practical evaluations.

Purpura fulminans secondary to varicella-zoster virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Purpura fulminans (PF) is a rare, life-threatening condition involving consumptive coagulopathy and intravascular thrombosis, causing purpura and necrosis in the skin and soft tissue. CASE REPORT: A 4-year-old Tajik girl with PF secondary to varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection presented with purplish red, diffuse, painful lesions localized to the entire right leg. Her vaccination status was unknown, and she did not have concurrent chronic illness. Ten days before admission, the girl was admitted to another hospital in Tajikistan with a diagnosis of chickenpox and PF. She was then transferred to the hospital of the authors of the current report due to the enlargement of lesions to the gluteal region, a change in the color of lesions from red to black, and the detection of arterial thrombosis via Doppler ultrasonography. Multiple surgical debridements were performed to manage tissue necrosis, and the patient's right leg was amputated at the 18th week of admission. The patient was discharged after 26 weeks of hospitalization. CONCLUSION: Although VZV infections mostly cause mild and self-limiting eruptive disease, they can progress, with life-threatening complications, including PF. To prevent VZV infection and resulting complications, immunization with live attenuated vaccines and maintaining population immunity above a certain threshold are the most important strategies to prevent the circulation of the virus.

The Clinical and Economic Burden of Antibiotic Use in Pediatric Patients With Varicella Infection: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis of Real-World Data in England.

BACKGROUND: Varicella is a highly infectious disease, particularly affecting children, that can lead to complications requiring antibiotics or hospitalization. Antibiotic use for varicella management is poorly documented. This study assessed antibiotic use for varicella and its complications in a pediatric population in England. METHODS: Data were drawn from medical records in the Clinical Practice Research Datalink and Hospital Episode Statistics data sets. The study included patients <18 years old with varicella diagnosed during 2014-2018 and 3-month follow-up available. We determined varicella-related complications, medication use, healthcare resource utilization, and costs from diagnosis until 3 months after diagnosis. RESULTS: We identified 114 578 children with a primary varicella diagnosis. Of these, 7.7% (n = 8814) had a varicella-related complication, the most common being ear, nose, and throat related (37.1% [n = 3271]). In all, 25.9% (n = 29 706 of 114 578) were prescribed antibiotics. A higher proportion of patients with complications than without complications were prescribed antibiotics (64.3% [n = 5668 of 8814] vs 22.7% [n = 24 038 of 105 764]). Mean annualized varicella-related costs were £2 231 481 for the study cohort. Overall, antibiotic prescriptions cost approximately £262 007. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights high antibiotic use and healthcare resource utilization associated with varicella management, particularly in patients with complications. A national varicella vaccination program in England may reduce varicella burden and related complications, medication use, and costs.

Varicella-Zoster Virus Pretransplant Vaccination and Posttransplant Infections Among Pediatric Solid Organ Recipients in the Two-Dose Varicella Era: A Single-Center, Multi-Organ Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) pretransplant immunization rates, exposures, and posttransplant disease are poorly characterized among pediatric solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients in the two-dose varicella vaccine era. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of the electronic health records among children <18 years old who received SOT from January 1, 2011 through December 31, 2021, was performed at a single center to assess for missed pretransplant varicella vaccination opportunities, characterize VZV exposures, and describe posttransplant disease. RESULTS: Among 525 children, 444 were ≥6 months old (m.o.) at SOT with a documented VZV vaccine status. Eighty-five (19%) did not receive VZV Dose One; 30 out of 85 (35%) could have been immunized. Infants 6-11 m.o. accounted for 14 out of 30 (47%) missed opportunities. Among children ≥12 m.o. with documented Dose Two status (n = 383), 72 had missed vaccination opportunities; 57 out of 72 (79%) were children 1-4 years old. Most children had unclassifiable pre-SOT serostatus as varicella serology was either not obtained/documented (n = 171) or the possibility of passive antibodies was not excluded (n = 137). Of those with classified serology (n = 188), 69 were seroimmune. Forty-seven of 525 (9%) children had recorded VZV exposures; two developed varicella-neither had documented pre-SOT seroimmunity nor had received post-exposure prophylaxis. Nine additional children had medically attended disease: four primary varicella and five zoster. Of the 11 cases, 10 had cutaneous lesions without invasive disease; one had multi-dermatomal zoster with transaminitis. Seven (64%) received treatment exclusively outpatient. CONCLUSIONS: VZV exposure and disease still occur. Optimizing immunization among eligible candidates and ensuring patients have a defined VZV serostatus pretransplantation remain goals of care.

Challenges in clinical diagnosis of Clade I Mpox: Highlighting the need for enhanced diagnostic approaches.

BACKGROUND: Due to limited diagnostic capacity and availability of point-of-care tests, diagnosis of Clade I mpox in the geographical regions most affected is usually on clinical grounds. This may be complicated due to the similarity between mpox and varicella (chickenpox) lesions. Visual assessment of lesions is also used for determining clinical progress and to assess patient outcomes in clinical trials. However, there has been no investigation into whether clinicians can (i) identify Clade I mpox compared to other viral lesions (ii) differentiate between Clade I mpox lesion stages. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS: The objective of this study was to evaluate inter-rater reliability and agreement between clinicians assessing lesions in patients with Clade I mpox. We presented experienced clinicians with 17 images of Clade I mpox or varicella and asked them to independently indicate the most likely diagnosis-mpox or varicella-and to categorise the lesions according to their stage. When selecting the most likely diagnosis, accuracy varied across all images, the inter-rater reliability was poor (κ = 0.223; z = 10.1) and agreement was moderate (Po = 68%). When categorising lesions according to their type, if a single lesion type was present in the image, inter-rater reliability was moderate (κ = 0.671, z = 40.6) and agreement was good (Po = 78%), but when multiple lesion types were shown in an image, both inter-rater reliability (κ = 0.153, z = 10.5) and agreement (Po = 29%) decreased substantially. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that there are presently limitations in using visual assessment to diagnose Clade I mpox and evaluate lesion stage and treatment outcomes, which have an impact on clinical practice, public health and clinical trials. More robust indicators and tools are required to inform clinical, public-health, and research priorities, but these must be implementable in countries affected by mpox.

Safety and Immunogenicity of the Live Attenuated Varicella Vaccine in Vietnamese Children Aged 12 Months to 12 Years: An Open-Label, Single-Arm Bridging Study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the SKYVaricella vaccine in healthy Vietnamese children aged 12 months to 12 years. METHODS: This open-label, single-arm study involved 201 children divided into two groups: 60 children aged 12 months to 5 years and 141 children aged 6 to 12 years. Safety was assessed through immediate reactions, solicited adverse events within 7 days, and unsolicited events up to Day 42. Immunogenicity was evaluated by seroconversion rates (SCR) and geometric mean titer (GMT) increments using fluorescent antibody-to-membrane antigen (FAMA) on the day of vaccination (D0) and 42 days after vaccination (D42). RESULTS: All participants completed the follow-up. Immediate adverse events included pain (8.0%), redness (8.0%), and swelling (20.9%) at the injection site. Within 7 days, pain (17.9%) and swelling (12.4%) were mild and self-resolving. Unsolicited adverse events were infrequent and mild. Both age groups achieved 100% SCR. GMT of varicella-zoster virus antibodies increased from 1.37 (SD 1.97) at D0 to 18.02 (SD 2.22) at D42, a 13.12-fold rise. No Grade 3 adverse events were observed. CONCLUSION: The SKYVaricella vaccine shows a robust immunogenic response and favorable safety profile in Vietnamese children aged 12 months to 12 years. These findings endorse its potential inclusion in pediatric vaccination programs as a reliable preventive option against varicella.

Varicella-zoster virus-related neurological complications: From infection to immunomodulatory therapies.

The Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), classified as a neurotropic member of the Herpesviridae family, exhibits a characteristic pathogenicity, predominantly inducing varicella, commonly known as chickenpox, during the initial infectious phase, and triggering the reactivation of herpes zoster, more commonly recognized as shingles, following its emergence from a latent state. The pathogenesis of VZV-associated neuroinflammation involves a complex interplay between viral replication within sensory ganglia and immune-mediated responses that contribute to tissue damage and dysfunction. Upon primary infection, VZV gains access to sensory ganglia, establishing latent infection within neurons. During reactivation, the virus can spread along sensory nerves, triggering a cascade of inflammatory mediators, chemokines, and immune cell infiltration in the affected neural tissues. The role of both adaptive and innate immune reactions, including the contributions of T and B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, in orchestrating the immune-mediated damage in the central nervous system is elucidated. Furthermore, the aberrant activation of the natural defence mechanism, characterised by the dysregulated production of immunomodulatory proteins and chemokines, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of VZV-induced neurological disorders, such as encephalitis, myelitis, and vasculopathy. The intricate balance between protective and detrimental immune responses in the context of VZV infection emphasises the necessity for an exhaustive comprehension of the immunopathogenic mechanisms propelling neuroinflammatory processes. Despite the availability of vaccines and antiviral therapies, VZV-related neurological complications remain a significant concern, particularly in immunocompromised individuals and the elderly. Elucidating these mechanisms might facilitate the emergence of innovative immunomodulatory strategies and targeted therapies aimed at mitigating VZV-induced neuroinflammatory damage and improving clinical outcomes. This comprehensive understanding enhances our grasp of viral pathogenesis and holds promise for pioneering therapeutic strategies designed to mitigate the neurological ramifications of VZV infections.

Effectiveness of two-dose vs. one-dose varicella vaccine in children in Shanghai, China: a prospective cohort study.

Objective: Varicella, a highly contagious viral disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), affects millions globally, with a higher prevalence among children. After the initial infection, VZV lies dormant in sensory ganglia and has the potential to reactivate much later, causing herpes zoster (HZ). Vaccination is one of the most effective methods to prevent varicella, and the two-dose varicella vaccine (VarV) regimen is widely used around the world. In China, the VarV has been included in the national immunization programme with a recommended single-dose regimen. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of the two-dose vs. one-dose VarV regimen in children in Shanghai, China. Materials and methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted in Shanghai, China, from September 2018 to December 2022. The study enrolled children aged 3-18 years who had received either the one-dose, two-dose, or 0-dose VarV regimen. Vaccination history, varicella infection status, and relevant variables, including demographic information (name, date of birth and sex) and medical history (clinical features of varicella and illness duration) were collected through medical record review and parental interviews. Results: A total of 3,838 children were included in the study, with 407 in the 0-dose regimen group, 2,107 in the one-dose regimen group and 1,324 in the two-dose regimen group. The corresponding incidence density in these groups was 0.13, 0.05 and 0.03 cases per 1,000 person-days, respectively. The adjusted vaccine effectiveness (VE) was 81.7% (95%CI: 59.3-91.8%) for the two-dose regimen and 60.3% (95%CI: 29.3-77.7%) for the one-dose regimen, compared to the 0-dose regimen. The two-dose VarV regimen showed a protective effectiveness of 47.6% (95%CI: 2.5-71.9%) compared to the one-dose VarV regimen. Conclusion: This study provides evidence supporting the greater effectiveness of the two-dose VarV regimen in preventing varicella infection compared to the one-dose regimen.

Chickenpox in Poland in 2021. / Ospa wietrzna w Polsce w 2021 roku.

INTRODUCTION: Chickenpox is a highly contagious disease, but one that can be effectively prevented by vaccination. In Poland, vaccination against the disease is recommended, paid for, and chickenpox remains very common. In recent years, starting in 2002, the upward trend in the incidence of chickenpox has continued, except in 2020. In 2020, there was a decrease in incidence. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate epidemiological indicators of chickenpox in Poland in 2021 compared to previous years, taking into account the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The evaluation of the epidemiological situation of chickenpox in Poland in 2021 was carried out based on the results of the analysis of aggregate data published in the annual bulletins: "Infectious Diseases and Poisons in Poland in 2021" and "Immunization in Poland in 2021". In addition, recommendations from the 2021 Immunization Program are described. RESULTS: 57,669 cases of chickenpox were registered in Poland in 2021, 42% less than in the previous year. The incidence of chickenpox in 2021 was 151.1 per 100,000, which was lower than in 2020, as well as in 2019, when it was 470.6/100,000. The lowest incidence was registered in Lower Silesia Province - 99.2/100,000, while the highest in Silesia Province - 215.8/100,000. The highest incidence was in children aged 0-4 years (18,028). The incidence of chickenpox in males was higher than in females (159.5 vs. 143.3/100 thousand), and urban residents were higher than rural residents (152.1 vs. 149.6/100 thousand). Hospitalization due to chickenpox in 2021 included 210 people, which accounted for 0.36% of the total number of registered cases. CONCLUSIONS: In 2021, there was a decrease in the number of chickenpox cases compared to the previous year. The lower incidence may have been the result of a decrease in the transmission of the chickenpox virus, the decrease in the number of cases has to do with, among other things, the restrictions put in place in connection with the COVID-19 pandemic, which result in, among other things, reduced human contact, the wearing of masks and increased social distance.