Life cycle assessment of edible insects (Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae) as a future protein and fat source.

Because it is important to develop new sustainable sources of edible protein, insects have been recommended as a new protein source. This study applied Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to investigate the environmental impact of small-scale edible insect production unit in South Korea. IMPACT 2002 + was applied as the baseline impact assessment (IA) methodology. The CML-IA baseline, EDIP 2003, EDP 2013, ILCD 2011 Midpoint, and ReCiPe midpoint IA methodologies were also used for LCIA methodology sensitivity analysis. The protein, fat contents, and fatty acid profile of the investigated insect (Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae) were analyzed to determine its potential food application. The results revealed that the studied edible insect production system has beneficial environmental effects on various impact categories (ICs), i.e., land occupation, mineral extraction, aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity, due to utilization of bio-waste to feed insects. This food production system can mitigate the negative environmental effects of those ICs, but has negative environmental impact on some other ICs such as global warming potential. By managing the consumption of various inputs, edible insects can become an environmentally efficient food production system for human nutrition.

Predicting the current and future distribution of the edible long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens (Serville) using temperature-dependent phenology models.

The edible long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens (Serville) is widely distributed and consumed in sub-Saharan Africa. Efficient mass rearing of the edible grasshopper is critical to ensure their sustainable supply for food and nutritional security. Hence, we investigated the effect of temperature on development, survival and reproduction of R. differens under six constant (15, 20, 25, 30, 32 and 35 °C) and fluctuating temperatures. Using Insect Life Cycle Modeling software we fitted, linear and non-linear models to R. differens development, mortality, longevity, and fecundity. The best-fitted functions were compiled for each life stage to yield a phenology model, which was stochastically simulated to estimate the life table parameters. We used the process-based climatic phenology models, and applied establishment risk index (ERI) and generation index (GI) in a geographic information system to map the potential distribution of R. differens under current and future climates. At optimum temperatures of 30-32 °C, egg incubation period was 14-15 days and the developmental time was shortest at 52.5-58 days. Lowest nymphal mortality (3.4-13%) and the highest female fecundity was obtained at 25-30 °C. The optimum temperature for the reproduction ranged between 27 and 30 °C. Most simulated lifetable parameters were at their maximum at 28 °C. Predictive models showed that countries in the East, Central, West, Southern and the Horn of Africa were suitable for establishment of R. differens under current climate scenarios (2000). However, by 2050, climatically suitable areas for the establishment of R. differens were predicted to shrink in the West, Southern and the Horn of Africa than its current distribution. We predict up to three generations per year for R. differens in sub-Saharan Africa under current scenarios which can increase to 4 under future scenarios. The optimum rearing temperatures identified can guide optimization of mass rearing of R. differens.

Insects: A Potential Source of Protein and Other Nutrients for Feed and Food.

Sustainable production of healthy food for a growing global population, in the face of the uncertainties of climate change, represents a major challenge for the coming decade. Livestock provide food with high nutritional value but are frequently fed on human-edible crops and are associated with significant production of greenhouse gases. Recent years have seen increasing interest in the farming of insects as a sustainable source of human food, or as a replacement of ingredients such as soya or fishmeal in the feeds of terrestrial livestock or fish. This review provides an overview of insect physiology and growth regulation, considers the requirements for insect farming and mass production, and summarizes the nutritional value of the 10 most commonly studied insect species, before reviewing the literature on the use of insects as feed and food. We highlight the challenges required to develop a sustainable, safe, and affordable insect farming industry.

Evaluation of various commodities for the development of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor.

We evaluated the suitability of forty-four commodities (i.e., cereal flours and meals, non-flour, cereal commodities, legumes and various commodities of vegetative and animal origin) as oviposition and feeding substrates for the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor. Τen T. molitor adults were introduced in plastic vials containing 30 g of each commodity. At the end of the 1 week period, all adults were removed, and mortality was determined; then the vials were further incubated for additional 9 weeks. After this time, the vials were opened, and the larvae of each vial were separated from the feeding substrate, counted and weighed as a group. The efficiency of ingested food conversion was calculated for each substrate. Finally, proximate composition was calculated to determine the nutrient components of the feeding substrates tested and the T. molitor larvae that fed on various selected substrates. In general, adult reproduction was clearly favoured by most amylaceous substrates tested, which was in contrast to the tested legumes on which fewer offspring were produced. Similar effects were observed for larval development. Feeding on selected substrates exerted an impact on the nutrient composition of T. molitor larvae, with a high protein content of the substrate usually resulting in a high protein content of the larvae.

Dietary enrichment of edible insects with omega 3 fatty acids.

Edible insects are advocated as sustainable and healthy food and feed. However, commercially produced insects are often low in n-3 fatty acids and have suboptimal n-6/n-3 ratios. A certain amount and proportion of these FAs is required to optimize human health. Flaxseed oil consists primarily (57%) out of alpha-linolenic acid. An experiment was conducted to quantify the effect of flaxseed oil provision on fatty acid composition and to determine the quantity needed to attain a beneficial n-6/n-3 ratio. Three species were used in the experiment: house crickets (Acheta domesticus [L.]), lesser mealworms (Alphitobius diaperinus [Pfanzer]) and black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens [L.]). These were provided with either a control diet or a diet enriched with 1%, 2%, or 4% flaxseed oil during their larval/nymphal stage. Fatty acid profiles of diets and insects were determined via GC-MS. The three species had distinct fatty acid profiles on all four diets, but responded similarly to flaxseed oil addition. For each percent added to the diet, the alpha-linolenic acid content of the insects increased by 2.3%-2.7%. Four percent addition increased the n-3 fatty acid content 10-20 fold in the three species and thereby strongly decreased n-6/n-3 ratios from 18-36 to 0.8-2.4. A ratio below 5 is considered optimal for human health and was achieved by 2% flaxseed oil inclusion for house crickets and lesser mealworms, and at 1% inclusion for black soldier flies. Adding a source of n-3 fatty acids to insect diets can thus improve the nutritional quality of insects.

The plant-based by-product diets for the mass-rearing of Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus.

Edible insect rearing could provide one alternative for protein production by having a smaller environmental impact than traditional livestock farming due to insects' ability to convert organic side streams. Currently, the insect rearing industry utilizes soybeans as a major source of protein in the feeds. Protein-rich by-products of food industry could be used to replace them in insect feeds, but it is not known if they also meet the insects' nutritional requirements. Our study evaluated the growth performance of two widely used edible cricket species, Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), on 18 experimental diets. The experimental diets included commercial chicken feeds and cricket diets, where soybean was partly and completely replaced with by-products from food industry: potato protein, barley mash, barley feed, compressed leftover of turnip rape and mix of broad bean and pea on three levels of protein. We found that the high- and medium-protein turnip rape and barley mash diets produced the highest yield and an increase in all performance variables. Overall, the high- and medium-protein diets produced the highest yield, growth and fastest development. Our results showed that by-products of food industry could be utilized as a part of the cricket feeds and thus advance the goals of circular economy.

Traditional consumption of and rearing edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe.

The traditional consumption of edible insects is common in one third of the world's population, mostly in Latin America, Africa and Asia. There are over one thousand identified species of insects eaten in some stage of their life cycle; and they play important roles in ensuring food security. The most common way to collect insects are from the wild, which is seasonal with limited availability and has an increasing demand resulting in a disruption to the ecosystem. There is a growing interest shown in rearing insects for commercial purposes, and an industrial scale production will be required to ensure steady supplies. Industrial production will need to take into account the living environment of insects, the nutritional composition of their feed and the overall efficiency of the production system. We provide a short overview on the consumption of and rearing insects in Africa, Asia and Europe. For Africa, a snapshot is given for Nigeria, Ghana, Central African Republic, Kenya and Uganda, while the following countries are reported for Asia: China, Japan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Vietnam. In addition, a list of insect species with the highest potential for food and feed in the European Union is provided with some reference to The Netherlands and Finland. The review concludes that there is need to better understand the rearing and farming procedures that will yield high quality edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe.