ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To improve our understanding of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). METHODS: A systematic review was performed, to retrieve all those papers on patients with SLE-MAS, in individual or aggregated form. The data in each of these medical records were extracted and analyzed to identify the characteristics of SLE-MAS. RESULTS: A total of 86 SLE-MAS patients were included (25 males and 61 females. The mean (±standard error of the mean) age was 31.21 ± 1.694 years. MAS occurred as the initial presentation of SLE in 47 people (54.65%) and during the course of SLE in 39 (45.35%). A coinfection was reported in 23 (26.74%) patients. The mean Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index 2000 (SLEDAI-2K) score was 16.54 ± 0.9462. Overall, 10 patients (11.63%) died. The SLEDAI-2K score was higher in patients with MAS as an initial manifestation of SLE than in those where MAS occurred during the course of SLE. The proportion of patients receiving steroid pulse therapy was lower in patients with coinfections. The deceased group demonstrated lower platelet and ferritin levels. Multiple regression analysis revealed that age and thrombocytopenia were independent factors associated with poor prognosis. In receiver operating characteristic analysis, a platelet count cutoff value of ≤47 × 109/L was a predictor of poor outcome. CONCLUSIONS: SLE-MAS patients demonstrated high lupus activity, and lupus activity was especially higher in patients with MAS as an initial manifestation. Lupus activity was the predominant trigger of lupus MAS. Thrombocytopenia was an independent factor for poor prognosis.
Subject(s)
Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic , Macrophage Activation Syndrome , Humans , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/complications , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/diagnosis , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology , Female , Male , Adult , Thrombocytopenia/etiology , Thrombocytopenia/blood , Prognosis , Severity of Illness IndexABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence of macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) in children with Kawasaki disease (KD) and to devise a classification tree for predicting MAS in early KD based on easily available clinical and laboratory information using artificial intelligence (AI) technology. METHODS: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted (March 2020 - October 2021) during which hospitalized children aged 1-18 years with KD were consecutively enrolled. Those with a positive RTPCR test or IgM/IgG serology for COVID-19 were excluded. The clinical and laboratory profiles of children with and without MAS were studied. A multivariable logistic regression (LR) model was developed utilizing backward elimination method to determine the relationship between select candidate predictor variables and MAS in patients with KD. A classification tree was created based on these using artificial intelligence algorithms. RESULTS: Sixty-two children were diagnosed with KD during the study period, of these, 42 children with KD were included; 14 (33.3 %) were diagnosed with MAS. The median (IQR) duration of fever (days) was significantly more in MAS than those without MAS [7 (5, 15) vs 5 (5, 9), P < 0.05]. Serum albumin (g/dL) was significantly lower in those with MAS [2.3 (2.2, 2.7) vs 2.8 (2.3, 3.1), P = 0.03]. The classification tree constructed using the AI-based algorithm predicted that in children with KD who had myocardial dysfunction, serum albumin < 2.8 g/dL and fever > 6 days duration at admission had an increased likelihood of developing MAS. In children without myocardial dysfunction, alanine transaminase (ALT) levels > 70 U/L and fever > 5 days were equally predictive of MAS. CONCLUSION: Nearly one-third of the children with KD had MAS. Clinicians should consider screening all children with KD for MAS at admission. A classification tree based on the presence of myocardial dysfunction, duration of fever > 6 days, ALT levels and hypoalbuminemia can identify MAS in the course of KD.
Subject(s)
Macrophage Activation Syndrome , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome , Humans , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/blood , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/epidemiology , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/diagnosis , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/complications , Cross-Sectional Studies , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Child, Preschool , Male , Child , Female , Infant , Adolescent , Artificial Intelligence , PrevalenceABSTRACT
Hyperinflammatory disease is associated with an aberrant immune response resulting in cytokine storm. One such instance of hyperinflammatory disease is known as macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). The pathology of MAS can be characterised by significantly elevated serum levels of interleukin-18 (IL-18) and interferon gamma (IFNγ). Given the role for IL-18 in MAS, we sought to establish the role of inflammasomes in the disease process. Using a murine model of CpG-oligonucleotide-induced MAS, we discovered that the expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome was increased and correlated with IL-18 production. Inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome or the downstream caspase-1 prevented MAS-mediated upregulation of IL-18 in the plasma but, interestingly, did not alleviate key features of hyperinflammatory disease including hyperferritinaemia and splenomegaly. Furthermore blockade of IL-1 receptor with its antagonist IL-1Ra did not prevent the development of CpG-induced MAS, despite being clinically effective in the treatment of MAS. These data demonstrate that, during the development of MAS, the NLRP3 inflammasome was essential for the elevation in plasma IL-18 - a key cytokine in clinical cases of MAS - but was not a driving factor in the pathogenesis of CpG-induced MAS.
Subject(s)
Disease Models, Animal , Inflammasomes , Interleukin-18 , Macrophage Activation Syndrome , NLR Family, Pyrin Domain-Containing 3 Protein , Animals , NLR Family, Pyrin Domain-Containing 3 Protein/metabolism , Interleukin-18/metabolism , Interleukin-18/blood , Inflammasomes/metabolism , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/pathology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/complications , Caspase 1/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Carrier Proteins/metabolism , Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology , Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist Protein/blood , Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist Protein/metabolism , Receptors, Interleukin-1/metabolismABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the clinical significance of serum cytokine profiles for differentiating between Kawasaki disease (KD) and its mimickers. METHODS: Patients with KD, including complete KD, KD shock syndrome (KDSS), and KD with macrophage activation syndrome (KD-MAS), and its mimickers, including multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, toxic shock syndrome, and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection, were enrolled. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (sTNF-RII), IL-10, IL-18, and chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 9 (CXCL9) were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and compared them with clinical manifestations. RESULTS: Serum IL-6, sTNF-RII, and IL-10 levels were significantly elevated in patients with KDSS. Serum IL-18 levels were substantially elevated in patients with KD-MAS. Patients with KD-MAS and KD mimickers had significantly elevated serum CXCL9 levels compared with those with complete KD. Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that serum IL-6 was the most useful for differentiating KDSS from the others, IL-18 and CXCL9 for KD-MAS from complete KD, and CXCL9 for KD mimickers from complete KD and KD-MAS. CONCLUSION: Serum cytokine profiles may be useful for differentiating between KD and its mimickers.
Subject(s)
Cytokines , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome , Shock, Septic , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome , Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Infections , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/blood , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/diagnosis , Cytokines/blood , Humans , Interleukin-6/blood , Chemokine CXCL9/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Male , Female , Child , Adolescent , Young Adult , Adult , Middle Aged , Aged , Diagnosis, Differential , Shock, Septic/blood , Shock, Septic/diagnosis , Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Infections/blood , Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Infections/diagnosis , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/blood , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/diagnosisABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: Ferritin is the major iron-storage glycoprotein found in all tissues. Ferritin glycosylation can be assessed by the differential affinities of ferritin glycoforms for Concanavalin A (ConA), a lectin. The fraction of serum ferritin bound to ConA is called "glycosylated ferritin" (GF). Low GF reflects macrophagic activation and is an essential biomarker used in adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD), macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and Gaucher disease diagnosis and therapeutic management. To date, no complete assay description and method validation according to the ISO 15189 standard has been published. This study aimed to describe and validate our method used for GF measurement and describe GF values observed in patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ferritin glycoforms were separated based on their affinities for ConA using commercially available TRIS-barbital buffer, Sepharose and ConA/Sepharose 4B gels. Ferritin concentrations were measured on the Siemens Dimension Vista 1500®. We analysed 16,843 GF values obtained between 2000 and 2021 from our database of patients. RESULTS: Optimal separation of ferritin glycoforms was obtained by 15-min incubation of serum with ConA/Sepharose at pH 8. The optimized volume were 0.4 mL for total serum ferritin (TSF) 30-1000 µg/L and 0.5 mL for TSF 1000-2500 µg/L. Serum with higher TSF should be pre-diluted in the TRIS-barbital buffer. Reproducibility of ferritin measurement in the TRIS-barbital buffer matrix was excellent (intra-assay CV < 1%; inter-assay CV < 4%). Reproducibility of GF assay was good (intra-assay CV < 10% for low and high ferritin samples, respectively; and inter-assay CV < 10%). Inter-operator variability was 21.6% for GF < 20%. Ferritin was stable for up to 3 days in the TRIS-barbital buffer. An inter-laboratory exchange program conducted with another French hospital showed good agreement between results. In our database, <20% GF levels were scarce, compatible with the low prevalence of Still's disease, MAS, and Gaucher disease. The 95% confidence interval for GF was [26-58]%, lower than values described in the literature for healthy individuals. CONCLUSION: Thanks to good performances, this technique can become readily available for laboratories servicing patients with AOSD, MAS (including severe COVID-19 patients) and Gaucher disease patients.
Subject(s)
Chemistry Techniques, Analytical/methods , Concanavalin A/metabolism , Ferritins/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/blood , Biomarkers/blood , Biomarkers/metabolism , Ferritins/metabolism , Gaucher Disease/blood , Gaucher Disease/metabolism , Humans , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/metabolism , Protein Binding , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/metabolismABSTRACT
Background: Interleukin (IL)-18 is markedly elevated in systemic inflammatory diseases that cause the 'cytokine storm' such as adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). The differences in IL-18 between AOSD and HLH, especially in adults, is uncertain. Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), a form of secondary HLH, is often difficult to differentiate cases of AOSD that include MAS from other secondary HLH. In this case-control study, we investigated whether serum IL-18 levels could be a useful biomarker for the differential diagnosis of AOSD with or without MAS (AOSD group) and other secondary HLH in adults (adult HLH group). Patients and Methods: We enrolled 46 patients diagnosed with AOSD including 9 patients with MAS and 31 patients in the adult HLH group, which excluded AOSD-associated MAS. The clinical features and laboratory data were compared between the AOSD and adult HLH groups. In addition, we subdivided the AOSD group (with or without MAS) and the adult HLH group (whether lymphoma-associated or not) and compared the four groups. A logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors with high efficacy in differentiating the two groups, followed by a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to evaluate the differential diagnostic ability of IL-18. We analyzed the correlation between IL-18 and various laboratory parameters in the AOSD group. Results: Serum IL-18 levels of patients in the AOSD groups were significantly higher than those of the adult HLH groups, and were closely correlated with ferritin, soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R), and other laboratory data. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that IL-18, sIL-2R, and 'arthralgia or arthritis' are independent factors useful in the differential diagnosis of AOSD from adult HLH. In the differential diagnosis of both groups, the area under the curve obtained from the ROC curve of IL-18 with a cutoff value of 18,550 pg/mL was 0.91 (95% confidence interval 0.83-1.00; sensitivity 90.3%, specificity 93.5%), and the differential diagnosis ability of IL-18 was superior to that of other laboratory data. Conclusions: IL-18 could be a useful biomarker for the differential diagnosis of AOSD and adult HLH.
Subject(s)
Interleukin-18/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/diagnosis , Adult , Aged , Biomarkers/blood , Diagnosis, Differential , Female , Ferritins/blood , Humans , Interleukin-18/immunology , Interleukin-6/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/immunology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/immunology , Male , Middle Aged , Receptors, Interleukin-2/blood , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/blood , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/immunologyABSTRACT
Interferon-γ (IFNγ) is a pleiotropic cytokine with multiple effects on the inflammatory response and on innate and adaptive immunity. Overproduction of IFNγ underlies several, potentially fatal, hyperinflammatory or immune-mediated diseases. Several data from animal models and/or from translational research in patients point to a role of IFNγ in hyperinflammatory diseases, such as primary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, various forms of secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, including macrophage activation syndrome, and cytokine release syndrome, all of which are often managed by rheumatologists or in consultation with rheumatologists. Given the effects of IFNγ on B cells and T follicular helper cells, a role for IFNγ in systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis is emerging. To improve our understanding of the role of IFNγ in human disease, IFNγ-related biomarkers that are relevant for the management of hyperinflammatory diseases are progressively being identified and studied, especially because circulating levels of IFNγ do not always reflect its overproduction in tissue. These biomarkers include STAT1 (specifically the phosphorylated form), neopterin and the chemokine CXCL9. IFNγ-neutralizing agents have shown efficacy in the treatment of primary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in clinical trials and initial promising results have been obtained in various forms of secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, including macrophage activation syndrome. In clinical practice, there is a growing body of evidence supporting the usefulness of circulating CXCL9 levels as a biomarker reflecting IFNγ production.
Subject(s)
Immune System Diseases/immunology , Inflammation/immunology , Interferon-gamma/antagonists & inhibitors , Interferon-gamma/immunology , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/immunology , Animals , Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/immunology , Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/therapeutic use , Biomarkers/blood , Chemokine CXCL9/blood , Chemokine CXCL9/immunology , Crohn Disease/blood , Crohn Disease/drug therapy , Crohn Disease/immunology , Disease Models, Animal , Humans , Immune System Diseases/blood , Immune System Diseases/drug therapy , Immunity/immunology , Inflammation/blood , Inflammation/drug therapy , Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis , Interferon-gamma/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/drug therapy , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/drug therapy , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/immunology , Mice , Neopterin/blood , Neopterin/immunology , STAT1 Transcription Factor/blood , STAT1 Transcription Factor/immunologyABSTRACT
COVID-19 is a highly heterogeneous and complex medical disorder; indeed, severe COVID-19 is probably amongst the most complex of medical conditions known to medical science. While enormous strides have been made in understanding the molecular pathways involved in patients infected with coronaviruses an overarching and comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of COVID-19 is lacking. Such an understanding is essential in the formulation of effective prophylactic and treatment strategies. Based on clinical, proteomic, and genomic studies as well as autopsy data severe COVID-19 disease can be considered to be the connection of three basic pathologic processes, namely a pulmonary macrophage activation syndrome with uncontrolled inflammation, a complement-mediated endothelialitis together with a procoagulant state with a thrombotic microangiopathy. In addition, platelet activation with the release of serotonin and the activation and degranulation of mast cells contributes to the hyper-inflammatory state. Auto-antibodies have been demonstrated in a large number of hospitalized patients which adds to the end-organ damage and pro-thrombotic state. This paper provides a clinical overview of the major pathogenetic mechanism leading to severe COVID-19 disease.
Subject(s)
COVID-19/virology , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19/physiopathology , Complement Activation , Complement System Proteins/metabolism , Cytokines/blood , Disease Progression , Host-Pathogen Interactions , Humans , Inflammation/blood , Inflammation/immunology , Inflammation/physiopathology , Inflammation/virology , Inflammation Mediators/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/immunology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/physiopathology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/virology , Platelet Activation , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Serotonin/blood , Severity of Illness Index , Thrombotic Microangiopathies/blood , Thrombotic Microangiopathies/immunology , Thrombotic Microangiopathies/physiopathology , Thrombotic Microangiopathies/virologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Subcutaneous anakinra is an interleukin-1 inhibitor used to treat juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Recent reports suggest anakinra can be a valuable addition to the treatment of COVID-19 associated cytokine storm syndrome and the related multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C) in children. Herein, we describe our experience with intravenously administered anakinra. FINDINGS: 19 Patients (9 male) received intravenous (IV) anakinra for treatment of macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), systemic JIA (SJIA) or secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH). In most cases the general trend of the fibrinogen, ferritin, AST, and platelet count (Ravelli criteria) improved after initiation of IV anakinra. There were no reports of anaphylaxis or reactions associated with administration of IV anakinra. CONCLUSION: Intravenous administration of anakinra is an important therapeutic option for critically ill patients with MAS/HLH. It is also beneficial for those with thrombocytopenia, subcutaneous edema, neurological dysfunction, or very young, hospitalized patients who need multiple painful subcutaneous injections.
Subject(s)
Administration, Intravenous/methods , COVID-19 Drug Treatment , Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist Protein/administration & dosage , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic , Macrophage Activation Syndrome , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/drug therapy , Antirheumatic Agents/administration & dosage , COVID-19/epidemiology , COVID-19/immunology , Child , Child, Hospitalized/psychology , Critical Illness/psychology , Critical Illness/therapy , Cytokine Release Syndrome/drug therapy , Cytokine Release Syndrome/virology , Female , Humans , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/complications , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/therapy , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/complications , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/immunology , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/therapy , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/drug therapy , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Male , Patient Comfort/methods , Retrospective Studies , SARS-CoV-2ABSTRACT
Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is defined as persistent fevers without an identifiable cause despite extensive medical workup. Emergency physicians caring for patients reporting a persistent, nonspecific, febrile illness should carefully consider potentially serious non-infectious causes of FUO. We present a case of a 35-year-old man who presented to the emergency department (ED) three times over a 10-day period for persistent febrile illness and was ultimately diagnosed with Adult-Onset Still's Disease (AOSD) after a serum ferritin level was found to be over 42,000 µg/L. AOSD, along with macrophage activation syndrome, catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome, and septic shock comprise the four hyperferritinemic syndromes. These are potentially life-threatening febrile illnesses that characteristically present with elevated ferritin levels. In this article, we highlight the value of a serum ferritin level in the workup of a patient with prolonged febrile illness and its utility in facilitating early diagnosis and prompt treatment of hyperferritinemic syndromes in the ED.
Subject(s)
Fever of Unknown Origin/physiopathology , Hyperferritinemia/blood , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/diagnosis , Adult , Antiphospholipid Syndrome/blood , Antiphospholipid Syndrome/complications , Emergency Service, Hospital , Fever of Unknown Origin/etiology , Humans , Hyperferritinemia/etiology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/complications , Male , Shock, Septic/blood , Shock, Septic/complications , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/blood , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/complications , Still's Disease, Adult-Onset/physiopathologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a potentially fatal complication of systemic inflammation. HMGB1 is a nuclear protein released extracellularly during proinflammatory lytic cell death or secreted by activated macrophages, NK cells, and additional cell types during infection or sterile injury. Extracellular HMGB1 orchestrates central events in inflammation as a prototype alarmin. TLR4 and the receptor for advanced glycation end products operate as key HMGB1 receptors to mediate inflammation. METHODS: Standard ELISA and cytometric bead array-based methods were used to examine the kinetic pattern for systemic release of HMGB1, ferritin, IL-18, IFN-γ, and MCP-1 before and during treatment of four children with critical MAS. Three of the patients with severe underlying systemic rheumatic diseases were treated with biologics including tocilizumab or anakinra when MAS developed. All patients required intensive care therapy due to life-threatening illness. Add-on etoposide therapy was administered due to insufficient clinical response with standard treatment. Etoposide promotes apoptotic rather than proinflammatory lytic cell death, conceivably ameliorating subsequent systemic inflammation. RESULTS: This therapeutic intervention brought disease control coinciding with a decline of the increased systemic HMGB1, IFN-γ, IL-18, and ferritin levels whereas MCP-1 levels evolved independently. CONCLUSION: Systemic HMGB1 levels in MAS have not been reported before. Our results suggest that the molecule is not merely a biomarker of inflammation, but most likely also contributes to the pathogenesis of MAS. These observations encourage further studies of HMGB1 antagonists. They also advocate therapeutic etoposide administration in severe MAS and provide a possible biological explanation for its mode of action.
Subject(s)
Biomarkers , Etoposide/administration & dosage , HMGB1 Protein/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/drug therapy , Adolescent , Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/administration & dosage , Child , Child, Preschool , Cytokines/blood , Female , Humans , Immunosuppressive Agents/administration & dosage , Inflammation Mediators/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Male , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
In this study, laboratorial parameters of hospitalized novel coronavirus (COVID-19) patients, who were complicated with severe pneumonia, were compared with the findings of cytokine storm developing in macrophage activation syndrome (MAS)/secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH). Severe pneumonia occurred as a result of cytokine storm in some patients who needed intensive care unit (ICU), and it is aimed to determine the precursive parameters in this situation. Also in this study, the aim is to identify laboratory criteria that predict worsening disease and ICU intensification, as well as the development of cytokine storm. This article comprises a retrospective cohort study of patients admitted to a single institution with COVID-19 pneumonia. This study includes 150 confirmed COVID-19 patients with severe pneumonia. When they were considered as severe pneumonia patients, the clinic and laboratory parameters of this group are compared with H-score criteria. Patients are divided into two subgroups; patients with worsened symptoms who were transferred into tertiary ICU, and patients with stable symptoms followed in the clinic. For the patients with confirmed COVID-19 infection, after they become complicated with severe pneumonia, lymphocytopenia (55.3%), anemia (12.0%), thrombocytopenia (19.3%), hyperferritinemia (72.5%), hyperfibrinogenemia (63.7%) and elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (90.8%), aspartate aminotransaminase (AST) (31.3%), alanine aminotransaminase (ALT) (20.7%) are detected. There were no significant changes in other parameters. Blood parameters between the pre-ICU period and the ICU period (in which their situation had been worsened and acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS] was developed) were also compared. In the latter group lymphocyte levels were found significantly reduced (p = 0.01), and LDH, highly sensitive troponin (hs-troponin), procalcitonin, and triglyceride levels were significantly increased (p < 0.05). In addition, there was no change in hemoglobin, leukocyte, platelet, ferritin, and liver function test levels, including patients who developed ARDS, similar to the cytokine storm developed in MAS/sHLH. COVID-19 pneumonia has similar findings as hyperinflammatory syndromes but does not seem to have typical features as in cytokine storm developed in MAS/sHLH. In the severe patient group who has started to develop ARDS signs, a decrease in lymphocyte level in addition to the elevated LDH, hs-troponin, procalcitonin, and triglyceride levels can be a predictor in progression to ICU admission and could help in the planning of anti-cytokine therapy.
Subject(s)
COVID-19/pathology , Cytokine Release Syndrome/pathology , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/pathology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/pathology , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , Aged , Alanine Transaminase/blood , Anemia/blood , Anemia/diagnosis , Anemia/immunology , Anemia/pathology , Aspartate Aminotransferases/blood , Biomarkers/blood , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/diagnosis , COVID-19/immunology , Cytokine Release Syndrome/blood , Cytokine Release Syndrome/diagnosis , Cytokine Release Syndrome/immunology , Diagnosis, Differential , Disease Progression , Female , Fibrinogen/metabolism , Humans , Hyperferritinemia/blood , Hyperferritinemia/diagnosis , Hyperferritinemia/immunology , Hyperferritinemia/pathology , Intensive Care Units , L-Lactate Dehydrogenase/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/diagnosis , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/immunology , Lymphopenia/blood , Lymphopenia/diagnosis , Lymphopenia/immunology , Lymphopenia/pathology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/immunology , Male , Middle Aged , Procalcitonin/blood , Retrospective Studies , Thrombocytopenia/blood , Thrombocytopenia/diagnosis , Thrombocytopenia/immunology , Thrombocytopenia/pathology , Triglycerides/blood , Troponin/bloodSubject(s)
Cyclosporine/administration & dosage , Etoposide/administration & dosage , Macrophage Activation Syndrome , Membrane Proteins/genetics , Methylprednisolone/administration & dosage , Polymyositis , Positron Emission Tomography Computed Tomography/methods , Adolescent , Antirheumatic Agents/administration & dosage , Autoantibodies/blood , Bone Marrow Examination/methods , Homozygote , Humans , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/therapy , Male , Mutation, Missense , Patient Care Planning , Polymyositis/blood , Polymyositis/drug therapy , Polymyositis/genetics , Polymyositis/physiopathology , Remission Induction/methods , Topoisomerase II Inhibitors/administration & dosage , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Infection with the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 triggers severe illness with high mortality in a subgroup of patients. Such a critical course of COVID-19 is thought to be associated with the development of cytokine storm, a condition seen in macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). However, specific data demonstrating a clear association of cytokine storm with severe COVID-19 are still lacking. The aim of this study was to directly address whether immune activation in COVID-19 does indeed mimic the conditions found in these classic cytokine storm syndromes. METHODS: Levels of 22 biomarkers were quantified in serum samples from patients with COVID-19 (n = 30 patients, n = 83 longitudinal samples in total), patients with secondary HLH/MAS (n = 50), and healthy controls (n = 9). Measurements were performed using bead array assays and single-marker enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Serum biomarker levels were assessed for correlations with disease outcome. RESULTS: In patients with secondary HLH/MAS, we observed pronounced activation of the interleukin-18 (IL-18)-interferon-γ axis, increased serum levels of IL-1 receptor antagonist, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and IL-8, and strongly reduced levels of soluble Fas ligand in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection. These observations appeared to discriminate immune dysregulation in critical COVID-19 from the well-recognized characteristics of other cytokine storm syndromes. CONCLUSION: Serum biomarker profiles clearly separate COVID-19 from MAS or secondary HLH in terms of distinguishing the severe systemic hyperinflammation that occurs following SARS-CoV-2 infection. These findings could be useful in determining the efficacy of drugs targeting key molecules and pathways specifically associated with systemic cytokine storm conditions in the treatment of COVID-19.
Subject(s)
COVID-19/diagnosis , Cytokine Release Syndrome/etiology , Interleukin-18/blood , Interleukin-8/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Biomarkers/blood , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/complications , Cytokine Release Syndrome/blood , Diagnosis, Differential , Female , Humans , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/blood , Lymphohistiocytosis, Hemophagocytic/complications , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/complications , Male , Middle Aged , Young AdultABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To identify clinical and laboratory predictors for early macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) associated with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA). STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective cohort study of 149 patients with sJIA, of whom 27 had 31 episodes of MAS. We evaluated the clinical and laboratory features of patients with sJIA and MAS and compared them with those without MAS. We focused our analysis on the overall process of MAS development, especially MAS onset. RESULTS: As shown in previous studies, we found a high percentage of fever, absence of arthritis, and central nervous system dysfunction at MAS onset in our study cohort. We also found that 35% of patients with MAS had hypotension although not shock, and 22.6% of patients with MAS had gastrointestinal involvement at MAS onset. Compared with patients with MAS without hypotension, patients with MAS and hypotension had greater rates of admission to the intensive care unit; presented with more arthritis, serositis, pneumonia, and gastrointestinal involvement; and had greater white blood cell and absolute neutrophil counts and serum bilirubin levels and lower serum total protein. We confirmed laboratory markers such as platelet counts, lactate dehydrogenase, and aspartate aminotransferase can help to identify early MAS and that ferritin/erythrocyte sedimentation rate ratio of approximately 20.0 had a high diagnostic sensitivity and specificity for MAS. In addition, we discovered that the combination of interferon-γ >17.1 pg/mL and interleukin-10 >7.8 pg/mL appeared to be a good cytokine pattern for the recognition of MAS onset. CONCLUSIONS: Sudden hypotension, elevated ferritin/erythrocyte sedimentation rate ratio, and the cytokine pattern of significantly increased interferon-γ and interleukin-10 levels are important markers for early identification of MAS in addition to the traditional characteristics of sJIA-associated MAS.
Subject(s)
Arthritis, Juvenile/complications , Hypotension/complications , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Biomarkers/blood , Blood Sedimentation , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Ferritins/blood , Humans , Interferon-gamma/blood , Interleukin-10/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/physiopathology , Male , Retrospective Studies , Severity of Illness IndexABSTRACT
AIMS: Recently, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) has been recognized in association with coronavirus disease 2019 as a cytokine storm syndrome. MIS-C presents with symptoms similar to Kawasaki disease and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). We aimed to better understand this cytokine storm syndrome by comparing the initial laboratory findings of MIS-C and MAS. METHODS: Patients who were diagnosed with MAS due to systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis in our clinic between March 2002 and November 2020 and with MIS-C between 20 September and 20 October 2020 were enrolled into the study. The medical files of all patients were reviewed retrospectively. RESULTS: A total of 13 MAS (9 boys, 4 girls) and 26 MIS-C (16 boys,10 girls) patients were included in the study. Hemoglobin, absolute neutrophil and lymphocyte counts, C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, fibrinogen and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels showed significant differences between the two groups (P < 0.05). Patients with MAS had lower hemoglobin (10.10 g/dL) and fibrinogen (2.72 g/dL), but higher ferritin (17 863 mg/dL) and LDH (890.61 U/L) at the time of diagnosis. Patients with MIS-C had higher absolute neutrophil count (12 180/mm3 ) and CRP (194.23 mg/dL) values, but lower absolute lymphocyte count (1140/mm3 ) at the time of diagnosis. Left ventricle ejection fraction was significantly lower in the MIS-C group in echocardiographic evaluation (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Ferritin, hemoglobin, LDH, and fibrinogen levels were significantly changed in MAS compared with MIS-C. However, patients with MIS-C have more severe signs than MAS, such as cardiac involvement.
Subject(s)
C-Reactive Protein/metabolism , COVID-19/diagnosis , Ferritins/blood , Fibrinogen/metabolism , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/diagnosis , Biomarkers/blood , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/complications , Child , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Leukocyte Count , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Male , Retrospective Studies , SARS-CoV-2 , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/blood , Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome/complicationsABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: To compare the cytokines involved in the development of macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) in different background rheumatic diseases and to identify serum biomarkers for MAS diagnosis. METHODS: Serum neopterin, IL-6, IL-18 and soluble TNF receptor (sTNFR) type I (sTNFR-I) and type II (sTNFR-II) levels were determined using ELISA in 12 patients with SLE, including five with MAS; 12 patients with JDM, including four with MAS; 75 patients with Kawasaki disease (KD), including six with MAS; and 179 patients with systemic JIA (s-JIA), including 43 with MAS. These results were compared with the clinical features of MAS. RESULTS: Serum neopterin, IL-18 and sTNFR-II levels were significantly higher during the MAS phase than during the active phase in patients with all diseases. Furthermore, serum sTNFR-I levels were significantly higher during the MAS phase than during the active phase in patients with SLE, KD and s-JIA. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis revealed that serum sTNFR-I levels for SLE, serum IL-18 levels for JDM, and serum sTNFR-II levels for KD and s-JIA had the highest areas under the ROC curve. Serum levels of these cytokines were significantly and positively correlated with serum ferritin levels. CONCLUSIONS: Overproduction of IFN-γ, IL-18 and TNF-α might be closely related to the development of MAS. Serum levels of sTNFR-I for SLE, IL-18 for JDM, and sTNFR-II for KD and s-JIA might be useful diagnostic markers for the transition from active phase to MAS.
Subject(s)
Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Rheumatic Diseases/complications , Adolescent , Arthritis, Juvenile/blood , Arthritis, Juvenile/diagnosis , Biomarkers/blood , Child , Child, Preschool , Cytokines/blood , Female , Humans , Interferon-gamma/blood , Interleukin-18/blood , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/blood , Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/diagnosis , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/etiology , Male , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/blood , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/diagnosis , Neopterin/blood , ROC Curve , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II/blood , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/bloodABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: To carry out a review of clinical characteristics, laboratory profiles, management and outcomes of patients with Kawasaki disease (KD) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). METHODS: Medical records of patients treated for KD and MAS between January 1994 and December 2019 were reviewed. Patient demographics, clinical signs, laboratory values, coronary artery abnormalities, treatments and outcomes of patients with KD and MAS were recorded. We also performed a review published studies on the subject. RESULTS: Of the 950 cases with KD, 12 (1.3%; 10 boys, 2 girls) were diagnosed with MAS. The median age at diagnosis was 4 years (range 9 months-7.5 years). The median interval between onset of fever and diagnosis of KD was 11 days (range 6-30). Thrombocytopenia was seen in 11 patients. The median pro-brain natriuretic peptide value was 2101 pg/ml (range 164-75 911). Coronary artery abnormalities were seen in 5 (41.7%) patients; 2 had dilatation of the left main coronary artery (LMCA), 1 had dilatation of both the LMCA and right coronary artery (RCA), 1 had dilatation of the RCA and 1 had bright coronary arteries. All patients received IVIG as first-line therapy for KD. MAS was treated with i.v. methylprednisolone pulses followed by tapering doses of oral prednisolone. Additional therapy included i.v. infliximab (n = 4), second-dose IVIG (n = 1) and oral ciclosporin (n = 1). CONCLUSION: MAS is an unusual and underrecognized complication of KD. In our cohort of 950 patients with KD, 1.3% had developed MAS. KD with MAS is associated with an increased propensity towards development of coronary artery abnormalities.
Subject(s)
Glucocorticoids/therapeutic use , Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/therapeutic use , Immunologic Factors/therapeutic use , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/drug therapy , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/drug therapy , Child , Child, Preschool , Coronary Aneurysm/diagnostic imaging , Coronary Aneurysm/physiopathology , Female , Humans , India , Infant , Infliximab/therapeutic use , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/blood , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/complications , Macrophage Activation Syndrome/physiopathology , Male , Methylprednisolone/therapeutic use , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/blood , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/complications , Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome/physiopathology , Prednisolone/therapeutic use , Pulse Therapy, Drug , Tertiary Healthcare , Thrombocytopenia/bloodABSTRACT
BACKGROUNDPediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection can be complicated by a dangerous hyperinflammatory condition termed multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). The clinical and immunologic spectrum of MIS-C and its relationship to other inflammatory conditions of childhood have not been studied in detail.METHODSWe retrospectively studied confirmed cases of MIS-C at our institution from March to June 2020. The clinical characteristics, laboratory studies, and treatment response were collected. Data were compared with historic cohorts of Kawasaki disease (KD) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS).RESULTSTwenty-eight patients fulfilled the case definition of MIS-C. Median age at presentation was 9 years (range: 1 month to 17 years); 50% of patients had preexisting conditions. All patients had laboratory confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Seventeen patients (61%) required intensive care, including 7 patients (25%) who required inotrope support. Seven patients (25%) met criteria for complete or incomplete KD, and coronary abnormalities were found in 6 cases. Lymphopenia, thrombocytopenia, and elevation in inflammatory markers, D-dimer, B-type natriuretic peptide, IL-6, and IL-10 levels were common but not ubiquitous. Cytopenias distinguished MIS-C from KD and the degree of hyperferritinemia and pattern of cytokine production differed between MIS-C and MAS. Immunomodulatory therapy given to patients with MIS-C included intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) (71%), corticosteroids (61%), and anakinra (18%). Clinical and laboratory improvement were observed in all cases, including 6 cases that did not require immunomodulatory therapy. No mortality was recorded in this cohort.CONCLUSIONMIS-C encompasses a broad phenotypic spectrum with clinical and laboratory features distinct from KD and MAS.FUNDINGThis work was supported by the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases; the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; Rheumatology Research Foundation Investigator Awards and Medical Education Award; Boston Children's Hospital Faculty Career Development Awards; the McCance Family Foundation; and the Samara Jan Turkel Center.