Methods of muscle spasticity assessment in children with cerebral palsy: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Evaluating muscle spasticity in children with cerebral palsy (CP) is essential for determining the most effective treatment strategies. This scoping review assesses the current methods used to evaluate muscle spasticity, highlighting both traditional and innovative technologies, and their respective advantages and limitations. METHODS: A search (to April 2024) used keywords such as muscle spasticity, cerebral palsy, and assessment methods. Selection criteria included articles involving CP children, assessing spasticity objectively/subjectively, comparing methods, or evaluating method effectiveness. RESULTS: From an initial pool of 1971 articles, 30 met our inclusion criteria. These studies collectively appraised a variety of techniques ranging from well-established clinical scales like the modified Ashworth Scale and Tardieu Scale, to cutting-edge technologies such as real-time sonoelastography and inertial sensors. Notably, innovative methods such as the dynamic evaluation of range of motion scale and the stiffness tool were highlighted for their potential to provide more nuanced and precise assessments of spasticity. The review unveiled a critical insight: while traditional methods are convenient and widely used, they often fall short in reliability and objectivity. CONCLUSION: The review discussed the strengths and limitations of each method and concluded that more reliable methods are needed to measure the level of muscle spasticity more accurately.

Comprehensive Observational and Longitudinal study on the Outbreak of Stroke-related Spasticity focusing on the Early Onset management with Botulinum NeuroToxin (COLOSSEO-BoNT): protocol for a real-world prospective observational study on upper limb spasticity.

INTRODUCTION: Poststroke spasticity (PSS) affects up to 40% of patients who had a stroke. Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) has been shown to improve spasticity, but the optimal timing of its application remains unclear. While several predictors of upper limb PSS are known, their utility in clinical practice in relation to BoNT-A treatment has yet to be fully elucidated. The COLOSSEO-BoNT study aims to investigate predictors of PSS and the effects of BoNT-A timing on spasticity-related metrics in a real-world setting. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The recruitment will involve approximately 960 patients who have recently experienced an ischaemic stroke (within 10 days, V0) and will follow them up for 24 months. Parameters will be gathered at specific intervals: (V1) 4, (V2) 8, (V3) 12, (V4) 18 months and (V5) 24 months following enrolment. Patients will be monitored throughout their rehabilitation and outpatient clinic journeys and will be compared based on their BoNT-A treatment status-distinguishing between patients receiving treatment at different timings and those who undergo rehabilitation without treatment. Potential predictors will encompass the Fugl-Meyer assessment, the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), stroke radiological characteristics, performance status, therapies and access to patient care pathways. Outcomes will evaluate muscle stiffness using the modified Ashworth scale and passive range of motion, along with measures of quality of life, pain, and functionality. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study underwent review and approval by the Ethics Committee of the Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Rome, Italy. Regardless of the outcome, the findings will be disseminated through publication in peer-reviewed journals and presentations at national and international conferences. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT05379413.

[Validity and reliability of the Tardieu scale for assessing upper limb spasticity in adults with cerebrovascular disease. Systematic review]. / Validez y fiabilidad de la escala de Tardieu para evaluar la espasticidad en miembro superior en adultos con enfermedad cerebrovascular. Revisión sistemática.

INTRODUCTION: The increase in the number of people with upper limb spasticity as a sequela of cerebrovascular disease, which negatively impacts their autonomy, functional independence and participation, and affects their quality of life, calls for the application of precise and objective instruments for its measurement and evaluation. OBJECTIVE: To assess the validity and reliability of the Tardieu scale in the evaluation of upper extremity spasticity in adults with cerebrovascular disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The search strategy was implemented in eight databases; the systematic review protocol was registered beforehand in INPLASY (with registration no. 2023110076). The evidence was synthesised in three phases: a tabular presentation of results, an evaluation of the quality of the articles, and a narrative synthesis of the findings. RESULTS: Only three of the 33 articles identified fulfilled the variables that enable the validity and reliability of the Tardieu scale to be established. The measurements of angles and velocities R1, R2 and R2-R1 were analysed. Student's t-test to assess the reliability between the measurements of R1 and R2; and angles R2 and R2-R1 showed statistical significance, which confirmed the reliability of the scale. CONCLUSIONS: The Tardieu scale proved robust. It is important to note that the sample size, the time of evolution of the disease and the age of the patients may influence the results of the scale.

TITLE: Validez y fiabilidad de la escala de Tardieu para evaluar la espasticidad en miembro superior en adultos con enfermedad cerebrovascular. Revisión sistemática.Introducción. El incremento en el número de personas con espasticidad en los miembros superiores como secuela de una enfermedad cerebrovascular, que impacta negativamente en la autonomía, la independencia funcional y la participación, y afecta a la calidad de vida de las personas, demanda la aplicación de herramientas clínicas precisas y objetivas para su medición y evaluación. Objetivo. Evaluar la validez y la fiabilidad de la escala de Tardieu en la evaluación de la espasticidad en las extremidades superiores de adultos con enfermedad cerebrovascular. Materiales y métodos. La estrategia de búsqueda se implementó en ocho bases de datos; el protocolo de revisión sistemática se registró previamente en INPLASY (registro n.o 2023110076). La síntesis de la evidencia se llevó a cabo en tres fases: presentación tabular de resultados, evaluación de la calidad de los artículos y síntesis narrativa de los hallazgos. Resultados. De los 33 artículos identificados, sólo tres cumplieron con las variables que permiten establecer la validez y la fiabilidad de la escala de Tardieu. Se analizaron las medidas de los ángulos y velocidades R1, R2 y R2-R1. La prueba de la t de Student para evaluar la fiabilidad entre las medidas de R1 y R2; los ángulos R2 y R2-R1 mostraron significancia estadística, lo que confirmó la confiabilidad de la escala. Conclusiones. La escala de Tardieu demostró robustez. Es importante considerar que el tamaño de la muestra, el tiempo de evolución de la enfermedad y la edad de los pacientes pueden influir en los resultados de la escala.

Unveiling the role of dorsal root ganglia in spasticity reduction: Insights from contralateral seventh cervical nerve cross transfer surgery.

BACKGROUND: Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as stroke, often lead to spasticity, which result in limb deformities and significant reduction in quality of life. Spasticity arises from disruptions in the normal functioning of cortical and descending inhibitory pathways in the brainstem, leading to abnormal muscle contractions. Contralateral seventh cervical nerve cross transfer (CC7) surgery has been proven to effectively reduce spasticity, but the specific mechanism for its effectiveness is unclear. METHODS: This study aimed to investigate the changes in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) following CC7 surgery. A comprehensive anatomical analysis was conducted through cadaveric study and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study, to accurately measure the regional anatomy of the C7 DRG. DRG perfusion changes were quantitatively assessed by comparing pre- and postoperative dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI. RESULTS: In CC7 surgery, the C7 nerve root on the affected side is cut close to the DRG (3.6 ± 1.0 mm), while the C7 nerve root on the healthy side is cut further away from the DRG (65.0 ± 10.0 mm). MRI studies revealed that after C7 proximal neurotomy on the affected side, there was an increase in DRG volume, vascular permeability, and perfusion; after C7 distal neurotomy on the healthy side, there was a decrease in DRG volume, with no significant changes in vascular permeability and perfusion. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary insights into the mechanisms of spasticity reduction following CC7 surgery, indicating that changes in the DRG, such as increased vascular permeability and perfusion, could disrupt abnormal spinal γ-circuits. The resulting high-perfusion state of DRG, possibly due to heightened neuronal activity and metabolic demands, necessitating further research to verify this hypothesis.

Effect of cryotherapy in controlling spasticity of calf muscles in patients with multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Spasticity is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS), affecting 80% of patients. Many studies have aimed to detect methods to reduce spasticity under these conditions and found that spasticity can be efficiently reduced using cryotherapy. OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of cryotherapy on spasticity among patients with MS. METHODS: Thirty-two participants were randomized into two groups. The study group was given airflow cryotherapy and a selected physical therapy program, whereas the control group was only given a selected physical therapy program. The treatment was administered three times each week for a total of twelve consecutive sessions. The outcome measures were the modified Ashworth scale and the H/M ratio. RESULTS: The study group showed significant decrease in calf muscle spasticity, indicated by a reduction in spasticity grade (p = 0.001) and a decrease in the H/M ratio of 33.81% (p = 0.001). The control group also showed significant reduction in calf muscle spasticity, as indicated by a reduction in spasticity grade (p = 0.001) and a reduction in the H/M ratio of 19.58% (p = 0.001). There was a significant decrease in the spasticity grade and H/M ratio of the study group posttreatment compared with those of the control group (p = 0.02 and p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: The combined effect of cryotherapy and a selected physical therapy program are more effective in controlling the spasticity of calf muscles in patients with MS than a selected physical therapy program alone.

Dry needling effects on motor impairments in a patient with traumatic brain injury: A case study.

BACKGROUND: Motor impairments are common consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It affects the individuals' participation in activities of daily living (ADLs). Dry needling treatment (DNT) uses a specialized needle to alter cortical activity. This case study aims to examine the effects of DNT on spasticity, balance, gait, and self-independence in a single patient with TBI. CASE DESCRIPTION: A twenty-six-year-old male with a history of TBI, resulting in muscle weakness on the right side of the body, spasticity, distributed balance, and difficulties with independent gait participated in this study. The Berg balance scale (BBS), 6-min walk test (6MWT), Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS), and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) were used to evaluate balance, gait, spasticity, and functional performance, respectively. OUTCOME: After 36 DNT sessions extended over 12 weeks, the patient demonstrated improvements in spasticity, balance, gait, and functional capacity both immediately after the intervention and at the 4-week follow-up. CONCLUSION: This case study demonstrates that DNT is considered a novel intervention for treating spasticity and improving balance, gait, and functional capacity post-TBI. Further research is recommended to verify these findings.

Effects of training with a rehabilitation device (Rebless®) on upper limb function in patients with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Upper limb dysfunction is one of the most common sequelae of stroke and robotic therapy is considered one of the promising methods for upper limb rehabilitation. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explore the clinical effectiveness of upper limb training using a rehabilitation robotic device (Rebless®) for patients with stroke. METHODS: In this prospective, unblinded, randomized controlled trial, patients were randomly assigned to receive robotic training (experimental group, n = 15) or conventional therapy (control group, n = 15). Both groups received upper limb training lasting for 30 minutes per session with a total of 10 training sessions within 4 weeks. Motor function, functional evaluation, and spasticity were clinically assessed before and after the training. Cortical activation was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy at the 1st and 10th training sessions. RESULTS: The experimental group demonstrated a significant improvement in the Fugl-Meyer assessment-upper extremity score and the modified Ashworth scale grade in elbow flexors. The cortical activity of the unaffected hemisphere significantly decreased after 10 training sessions in the experimental group compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The experimental group showed significant improvement in the Fugl-Meyer assessment-upper extremity score and spasticity of elbow flexors and had significantly decreased cortical activity of the unaffected hemisphere. Training with Rebless® may help patients with chronic stroke in restoring upper limb function and recovering the contralateral predominance of activation in motor function.

Uncovering the rate and risk factors of intrathecal baclofen pump-associated complications in the adult population.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was 1) to describe the rate of intrathecal baclofen (ITB)-associated complications at a large tertiary center, and 2) to evaluate the impact of patient-related factors on the likelihood of developing such complications. METHODS: A retrospective single-center study was carried out. A total of 301 eligible patients were included in the analysis. Univariate regression models were used to evaluate the impact of age, sex, diagnosis, ambulation status, modified Ashworth scale score, body mass index, diabetes status, and pain level on the likelihood of developing a device-related infection, pump malfunction, catheter malfunction, and other clinically significant complications. RESULTS: Overall, 27% of patients experienced an ITB-related complication. The most common complications included infection (6%, 18/301), pump malfunction (7.3%, 22/301), and catheter malfunction (14%, 42/301). The univariate analyses revealed that the patient's ambulatory status had a significant impact on the likelihood of developing a catheter-related malfunction. Furthermore, a trend toward significance was identified between patients' preoperative body mass index and device-related infection. Finally, the risk of suffering any ITB-related complications was statistically correlated with the number of years that had passed since the initial pump implantation. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' analysis reveals a previously underrecognized association between ambulatory status at the time of ITB pump implantation and the incidence of catheter-related complications, and confirms the impact of time since surgery on the risk of developing any ITB-related complication. The patient's age, sex, diagnosis, diabetes status, or pain level at baseline were not associated with the risk of complications. Collectively, these insights contribute novel information to the existing literature, providing practical value for physicians in guiding patient selection for ITB therapy.

History and evolution of surgical treatment for spasticity: a journey from neurotomy to selective dorsal rhizotomy.

The evolution of neurosurgical approaches to spasticity spans centuries, marked by key milestones and innovative practitioners. Probable ancient descriptions of spasmodic conditions were first classified as spasticity in the 19th century through the interventions of Dr. William John Little on patients with cerebral palsy. The late 19th century witnessed pioneering efforts by surgeons such as Dr. Charles Loomis Dana, who explored neurotomies, and Dr. Charles Sherrington, who proposed dorsal rhizotomy to address spasticity. Dorsal rhizotomy rose to prominence under the expertise of Dr. Otfrid Foerster but saw a decline in the 1920s due to emerging alternative procedures and associated complications. The mid-20th century saw a shift toward myelotomy but the revival of dorsal rhizotomy under Dr. Claude Gros' selective approach and Dr. Marc Sindou's dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) lesioning. In the late 1970s, Dr. Victor Fasano introduced functional dorsal rhizotomy, incorporating electrophysiological evaluations. Dr. Warwick Peacock and Dr. Leila Arens further modified selective dorsal rhizotomy, focusing on approaches at the cauda equina level. Later, baclofen delivered intrathecally via an implanted programmable pump emerged as a promising alternative around the late 1980s, pioneered by Richard Penn and Jeffrey Kroin and then led by A. Leland Albright. Moreover, intraventricular baclofen has also been tried in this matter. The evolution of these neurosurgical interventions highlights the dynamic nature of medical progress, with each era building upon and refining the work of significant individuals, ultimately contributing to successful outcomes in the management of spasticity.

Palliative single-level selective dorsal rhizotomy for children with spastic cerebral palsy Gross Motor Function Classification System level IV and V: a case series and systematic review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: Single-level selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR), typically indicated for ambulatory patients, is a controversial topic for severe spastic cerebral palsy (CP) with Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level IV or V. The objective of this case series and systematic literature review was to outline the indication and outcome of palliative SDR for nonambulatory patients with CP and GMFCS level IV and V, focusing on improvement of spasticity and of patient and caregiver reported quality of life assessment. METHODS: A retrospective case series of patients with CP and GMFCS level IV or V who underwent single-level SDR at the authors' institution is presented. Furthermore, two databases (PubMed and Embase) were searched and a systematic review with a search string based on the terms "selective dorsal rhizotomy," "cerebral palsy," and "outcome" was conducted. The primary outcome was the reduction of spasticity based on the modified Ashworth scale (MAS). Secondary outcomes were change on the Gross Motor Function Measure-66 (GMFM-66), evaluation of patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs), surgical morbidity, and mortality. RESULTS: Eleven consecutive children under the age of 25 years undergoing palliative single-level SDR were included. All patients showed a reduction in MAS score (mean 1.09 ± 0.66 points) and no surgical morbidity and mortality occurred. For the systematic review results from our case series, in addition to 4 reports, 274 total patients were included. Reduction of spasticity based on MAS score was noted in all studies (mean range 1.09-3.2 points). Furthermore, in 2 studies spasticity of the upper extremities showed a MAS score reduction as well (range 1.7-2.8 points). The GMFM-66 score improved in 72% of the patients, while bladder function improved in 78% of the patients. Based on the PROMs, 92% of the patients/caregivers were satisfied with the outcome and their quality of life after the procedure. Two wound infections (2.7%) and one CSF leak (1.3%) occurred, while no surgery-related deaths were described. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis showed an improvement in spasticity, daily care, and comfort for patients with CP and GMFCS levels IV and V. Larger cohorts analyzing the outcome of palliative single-level SDR, based on the MAS, GMFM-66, and PROMs, are still needed and should be the focus of future studies. Systematic review registration no.: CRD42024495762 (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/).

Case-based explanation of standard work tools for selective dorsal rhizotomy for cerebral palsy.

OBJECTIVE: Spasticity is a challenging feature of cerebral palsy (CP) that may be managed with selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR). Although standard work tools (SWTs) have recently been utilized to inform a standard of care for neurosurgical procedures, no SWTs for SDR have been previously described. The authors present the multidisciplinary approach SWTs for SDR used at their institutions to promote consistency in the field and minimize complication rates. METHODS: A multidisciplinary approach was used to define all steps in the SDR pathway. Preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative workflows were synthesized, with specific efforts to improve mobility through inpatient rehabilitation and minimize infection. RESULTS: The SWTs have been implemented at two institutions for 7 years. An illustrative case of a patient aged 3 years 10 months with a history of premature birth at 29 weeks, spastic-diplegic CP, right-sided periventricular leukomalacia, and developmental delay who underwent L2-S1 SDR is presented. CONCLUSIONS: The authors detail SWTs for SDR developed by a multidisciplinary team with specific steps at all points in the patient pathway. The illustrative case emphasizes that SWTs may help ensure the safety of SDR while maximizing its long-term efficacy for individuals with CP.

Spinal catheter revision in pediatric intrathecal baclofen pumps: risk factors and postoperative outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Intrathecal baclofen (ITB) pumps are commonly used in pediatric patients with cerebral palsy (CP) and medically refractory spasticity. However, catheter malfunction and associated risk factors are not well understood. The aim of this study was to examine potential risk factors for spinal catheter malfunction and characterize postoperative follow-up to understand the clinical consequences. METHODS: Patients who received ITB pump replacement or revision at Boston Children's Hospital between 2010 and 2023 were retrospectively reviewed. The spinal catheter revision cohort (SCRC) included patients whose spinal catheter was occluded requiring lumbar catheter revision. The second cohort included abdominal pump replacements only (APRC). Between-group comparisons and multivariable regression identified factors associated with catheter revision and postoperative outcomes. RESULTS: Forty-one (33.6%) patients underwent spinal catheter revision and were compared with 81 patients (66.4%) who underwent abdominal pump replacement only. Younger age at surgery and an elevated preoperative lower-extremity modified Ashworth scale grade were associated with spinal catheter revision (p < 0.05). Catheter model type, tip location, and history of spinal fusion were not associated with obstruction. Postoperatively, SCRC patients experienced a higher rate of infection (17.1%) relative to APRC patients (0%) within 30 days from their ITB pump replacement procedure (p < 0.05) and greater likelihood of subsequent ITB system removal compared with the APRC (24.4% vs 7.4%, p < 0.05). Although not differing preoperatively, SCRC patients had lower postoperative ITB doses when compared with the APRC group (median dose 143 vs 350 µg/day, p < 0.05) at hospital discharge and remained statistically different at the 6-month and 1-year follow-ups (p < 0.05). There were no postoperative differences in baclofen overdose, withdrawal, or median number of hospital readmissions within 30 days. Overall, 31.7% of spinal catheter revisions were unanticipated by the clinical team at time of surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Younger age at surgery and increased preoperative lower-extremity tone may be risk factors for catheter obstruction, resulting in a higher rate of postoperative infection and subsequent ITB pump removal compared with pump replacement alone. Spinal catheter occlusion can complicate revision or replacement procedures, especially when unanticipated. Routine clinical assessment may be inadequate for diagnosing insidious catheter malfunction. Catheter occlusion deserves further study, and routine assessment of catheter patency may be warranted to prevent suboptimal tone therapy.

Concomitant Botulinum Toxin Injections for Neurogenic Detrusor Overactivity and Spasticity-A Retrospective Analysis of Practice and Safety.

As multiple indications for botulinum toxin injections (BTIs) can coexist for neurological patients, there are to date no description of concomitant injections (CIs) to treat both spasticity and neurogenic detrusor overactivity incontinence (NDOI) in patients with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) and multiple sclerosis (MS). We therefore identified patients followed at our institution by health data hub digging, using a specific procedure coding system in use in France, who have been treated at least once with detrusor and skeletal muscle BTIs within the same 1-month period, over the past 5 years (2017-2021). We analyzed 72 patients representing 319 CIs. Fifty (69%) were male, and the patients were mostly SCI (76%) and MS (18%) patients and were treated by a mean number of CIs of 4.4 ± 3.6 [1-14]. The mean cumulative dose was 442.1 ± 98.8 U, and 95% of CIs were performed within a 72 h timeframe. Among all CIs, five patients had symptoms evocative of distant spread but only one had a confirmed pathological jitter in single-fiber EMG. Eleven discontinued CIs for surgical alternatives: enterocystoplasty (five), tenotomy (three), intrathecal baclofen (two) and neurotomy (one). Concomitant BTIs for treating both spasticity and NDOI at the same time appeared safe when performed within a short delay and in compliance with actual knowledge for maximum doses.

Role of Diagnostic Nerve Blocks in the Goal-Oriented Treatment of Spasticity with Botulinum Toxin Type A: A Case-Control Study.

The goal-setting process is pivotal in managing patients with disabling spasticity. This case-control study assessed the role of diagnostic nerve blocks in guiding the goal-setting process within goal-targeted treatment of spasticity with botulinum neurotoxin-A. In this case-control study, patients with disabling spasticity underwent either a goal-setting process based on the patient's needs and clinical evaluation (control group) or additional diagnostic nerve block procedures (case group). All enrolled patients underwent a focal treatment with botulinum neurotoxin-A injection and a 1-month follow-up evaluation during which goal achievement was quantified using the goal attainment scaling-light score system. Data showed a higher goal achievement rate in the case group (70%) than in the control group (40%). In conclusion, diagnostic nerve blocks may help guide the goal-setting process within goal-targeted treatment of spasticity with botulinum neurotoxin-A towards more realistic and achievable goals, thereby improving the outcomes of botulinum neurotoxin-A injection. Future studies should better explore the role of diagnostic nerve blocks to further personalize botulinum neurotoxin-A according to individual patients' preferences and requirements.

Long-Term Enhancement of Botulinum Toxin Injections for Post-Stroke Spasticity by Use of Stretching Exercises-A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Botulinum toxin A (BONT/A) injections play a central role in the treatment of upper limb spasticity in stroke patients. We proposed structured stretching exercises to enhance the effect of post-stroke spasticity relief of the upper limbs following BONT/A injections. A total of 43 patients who had a stroke with grade 2 spasticity or higher on the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) in their upper-limb muscles were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 21) or control group (n = 22). The former received structured stretching exercises after their BONT/A injections for 20 min, 5 days per week, for 6 months at a hospital, while the others conducted self-stretching exercises at home. The outcome measures were assessed before the intervention (T0) and after three (T1) and six months (T2). Significantly greater improvements in the MAS scores of the elbows, wrists, and fingers were found in the intervention group's patients at T1 and T2. The behavioral outcome measures, including shoulder pain, activities of daily living, and quality of life, and our electrophysiological studies also showed a significantly higher enhancement in this patient group. In conclusion, the structured stretching exercises plus BONT/A injections for six months showed a superior effect in relieving post-stroke upper-limb spasticity compared to self-stretching exercises.

Evaluation of the long-term effect of selective tibial neurotomy for the treatment of spastic foot using a personal goal-centered approach.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of selective tibial neurotomy (STN) for the treatment of the spastic foot using a goal-centered approach. METHODS: Between 2011 and 2018, adult patients with a spastic foot (regardless of etiology) who received STN followed by a rehabilitation program were included. The primary outcome was the achievement of individual goals defined preoperatively (T0) and compared at 1-year (T1) and 5-year (T5) follow-up by using the Goal Attainment Scaling methodology (T-score). The secondary outcomes were the presence of spastic deformities (equinus, varus, and claw toes), modified Ashworth scale (MAS) score for the targeted muscles, and modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score at T0, T1, and T5. RESULTS: Eighty-eight patients were included. At T5, 88.7% of patients had achieved their goals at least "as expected." The mean T-score was significantly higher at T1 (62.5 ± 9.5) and T5 (60.6 ± 11.3) than at T0 (37.9 ± 2.8) (p < 0.0001), and the difference between T1 and T5 was not significant (p = 0.2). Compared to T0, deformities (equinus, varus, and claw toes; all p < 0.0001), MAS score (p < 0.0001), and mRS score (p < 0.0001) were significantly improved at T1 and T5. Compared to T1, MAS score increased slightly only at T5 (p = 0.05) but remained largely below the preoperative value. There was no difference between T1 and T5 regarding other clinical parameters (e.g., deformities, walking abilities, mRS score). CONCLUSIONS: This study found that STN associated with a postoperative rehabilitation program can enable patients to successfully achieve personal goals that are sustained within a 5-year follow-up period.

Outcomes, complications, and dosing of intrathecal baclofen in the treatment of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate empirical outcomes of studies in the literature that investigated effectiveness of intrathecal baclofen (ITB) in the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS)-related spasticity (MSRS) based on various metrics. Since the first description of this route of baclofen delivery for MS patients by Penn and Kroin in 1984, numerous studies have contributed to the medical community's knowledge of this treatment modality. The authors sought to add to the literature a systematic review of studies over the last 2 decades that elucidates the clinical impact of ITB in treating MSRS with the following endpoints: impact on patient-centered outcomes, such as spasticity reduction (primary), complications (secondary), and dosing (secondary). METHODS: The authors queried three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library) using the following search terms: (intrathecal baclofen) AND (multiple sclerosis). The set inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) original, full-text article; 2) written in the English language; 3) published between and including the years 2000 and 2023; 4) discussion of pre- and post-ITB pump implantation outcomes (e.g., reduction in spasticity and improved comfort) in MSRS patients with long-term ITB treatment; and 5) contained a minimum of 5 MS patients. Data on study type, patient demographics, follow-up periods, primary outcomes, and secondary outcomes were extracted from the included studies. RESULTS: The authors' search yielded 465 studies, of which 17 met inclusion criteria. Overall, they found evidence for the effectiveness of ITB in treating MSRS patients whose condition was refractory to oral medications, with significant reported changes in spasm frequency from pre- to postimplantation. They also found evidence supporting the positive impact of ITB on MSRS patients' quality of life. Moreover, the authors found that most complications were surgical rather than pharmacological. In addition, the average 1-year dose of ITB (reported in 7 of the included studies) was 191.93 µg/day, which is substantially lower than ITB doses reported in the literature for patients with central (non-MS) or spinal origins of spasticity at 1-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence supports ITB as a clinically effective treatment for MSRS, particularly in patients in whom oral antispasmodics and physiotherapy have failed. This systematic review contributes a comprehensive synthesis of clinical benefits, complications, and dosing of ITB reported over the past 2 decades, which furthers an understanding of ITB's clinical utility in practice.

Percutaneous thermal radiofrequency rhizotomy of L2-S1 spinal nerve roots in children with cerebral palsy.

OBJECTIVE: This study presents the results of an evaluation of the effectiveness of percutaneous thermal radiofrequency (RF) ablation of spinal nerve roots to reduce spasticity and improve motor function in children with cerebral palsy (CP). METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted on the surgical treatment outcomes of 26 pediatric patients with severe CP (Gross Motor Function Classification System levels IV-V). The assessment protocol included muscle tone assessment using the modified Ashworth scale (MAS), evaluation of passive and active range of motion, gait video recording, and locomotor status evaluation using the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM)-88 scale. Thermal RF rhizotomy (ablation of spinal nerve roots) was performed on all patients at the L2-S1 levels at 70°C for 90 seconds. The statistical data analysis was conducted using the t-test and Mann-Whitney U-test. A p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: Before the operation, the average level of spasticity in the lower-limb muscles of all patients was 3.0 ± 0.2 according to the MAS. In the early postoperative period, the spasticity level in all examined muscle groups significantly decreased to a mean of 1.14 ± 0.15 (p < 0.001). In the long-term postoperative period, the spasticity level in the examined muscle groups averaged 1.49 ± 0.17 points on the MAS (p < 0.001 compared to baseline, p = 0.0416 compared to the early postoperative period). Despite the marked reduction of spasticity in the lower limbs, no significant change in locomotor status according to the GMFM-88 scale was observed in the selected category of patients. In the long-term period, during the control examination of patients, the GMFM-88 level increased on average by 3.6% ± 1.4% (from 22.2% ± 3.1% to 25.8% ± 3.6%). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study offer preliminary yet compelling evidence that RF ablation of spinal nerve roots can lead to a significant and enduring decrease in muscle tone among children with severe spastic CP. Further studies and longer-term data of the impact on functionality and quality of life of patients with CP after spinal root RF ablation are needed.