Characterization of Unique Pathological Features of COVID-Associated Coagulopathy: Studies with AC70 hACE2 Transgenic Mice Highly Permissive to SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

COVID-associated coagulopathy seemly plays a key role in post-acute sequelae of SARS- CoV-2 infection. However, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood, largely due to the lack of suitable animal models that recapitulate key clinical and pathological symptoms. Here, we fully characterized AC70 line of human ACE2 transgenic (AC70 hACE2 Tg) mice for SARS-CoV-2 infection. We noted that this model is highly permissive to SARS-CoV-2 with values of 50% lethal dose and infectious dose as ~ 3 and ~ 0.5 TCID50 of SARS-CoV-2, respectively. Mice infected with 105 TCID50 of SARS-CoV-2 rapidly succumbed to infection with 100% mortality within 5 days. Lung and brain were the prime tissues harboring high viral titers, accompanied by histopathology. However, viral RNA and inflammatory mediators could be detectable in other organs, suggesting the nature of a systemic infection. Lethal challenge of AC70 hACE2 Tg mice caused acute onset of leukopenia, lymphopenia, along with an increased neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR). Importantly, infected animals recapitulated key features of COVID-19-associated coagulopathy. SARS-CoV-2 could induce the release of circulating neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), along with activated platelet/endothelium marker. Immunohistochemical staining with anti-platelet factor-4 (PF4) antibody revealed profound platelet aggregates especially within blocked veins of the lungs. We showed that acute SARS-CoV-2 infection triggered a hypercoagulable state coexisting with ill-regulated fibrinolysis. Finally, we highlighted the potential role of Annexin A2 (ANXA2) in fibrinolytic failure. ANXA2 is a calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding protein that forms a heterotertrameric complexes localized at the extracellular membranes with two S100A10 small molecules acting as a co-receptor for tissue-plasminogen activator (t-PA), tightly involved in cell surface fibrinolysis. Thus, our results revealing elevated IgG type anti-ANXA2 antibody production, downregulated de novo ANXA2/S100A10 synthesis, and reduced ANXA2/S100A10 association in infected mice, this protein might serve as druggable targets for development of antithrombotic and/or anti-fibrinolytic agents to attenuate pathogenesis of COVID-19.

Multicentric investigations of the role in the disease severity of accelerated phospholipid changes in COVID-19 patient airway.

CONTEXT: The changes in host membrane phospholipids are crucial in airway infection pathogenesis. Phospholipase A2 hydrolyzes host cell membranes, producing lyso-phospholipids and free fatty acids, including arachidonic acid (AA), which contributes significantly to lung inflammation. AIM: Follow these changes and their evolution from day 1, day 3 to day 7 in airway aspirates of 89 patients with COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome and examine whether they correlate with the severity of the disease. The patients were recruited in three French intensive care units. The analysis was conducted from admission to the intensive care unit until the end of the first week of mechanical ventilation. RESULTS: In the airway aspirates, we found significant increases in the levels of host cell phospholipids, including phosphatidyl-serine and phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, and their corresponding lyso-phospholipids. This was accompanied by increased levels of AA and its inflammatory metabolite prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Additionally, enhanced levels of ceramides, sphingomyelin, and free cholesterol were observed in these aspirates. These lipids are known to be involved in cell death and/or apoptosis, whereas free cholesterol plays a role in virus entry and replication in host cells. However, there were no significant changes in the levels of dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine, the major surfactant phospholipid. A correlation analysis revealed an association between mortality risk and levels of AA and PGE2, as well as host cell phospholipids. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate a correlation between heightened cellular phospholipid modifications and variations in AA and PGE2 with the severity of the disease in patients. Nevertheless, there is no indication of surfactant alteration in the initial phases of the illness.

The Role of TLR-2 in Lethal COVID-19 Disease Involving Medullary and Resident Lung Megakaryocyte Up-Regulation in the Microthrombosis Mechanism.

Patients with COVID-19 have coagulation and platelet disorders, with platelet alterations and thrombocytopenia representing negative prognostic parameters associated with severe forms of the disease and increased lethality. METHODS: The aim of this study was to study the expression of platelet glycoprotein IIIa (CD61), playing a critical role in platelet aggregation, together with TRL-2 as a marker of innate immune activation. RESULTS: A total of 25 patients were investigated, with the majority (24/25, 96%) having co-morbidities and dying from a fatal form of SARS-CoV-2(+) infection (COVID-19+), with 13 men and 12 females ranging in age from 45 to 80 years. When compared to a control group of SARS-CoV-2 (-) negative lungs (COVID-19-), TLR-2 expression was up-regulated in a subset of patients with deadly COVID-19 fatal lung illness. The proportion of Spike-1 (+) patients found by PCR and ISH correlates to the proportion of Spike-S1-positive cases as detected by digital pathology examination. Furthermore, CD61 expression was considerably higher in the lungs of deceased patients. In conclusion, we demonstrate that innate immune prolonged hyperactivation is related to platelet/megakaryocyte over-expression in the lung. CONCLUSIONS: Microthrombosis in deadly COVID-19+ lung disease is associated with an increase in the number of CD61+ platelets and megakaryocytes in the pulmonary interstitium, as well as their functional activation; this phenomenon is associated with increased expression of innate immunity TLR2+ cells, which binds the SARS-CoV-2 E protein, and significantly with the persistence of the Spike-S1 viral sequence.

Investigating the pathogenesis of vitreous in postmortem COVID patients via untargeted metabolomics based bioinformatics model.

SARS-CoV-2 virus has become a worldwide pandemic causing millions of death. This severe disaster lead to a immense panic and stress all over the world. Several studies were dedicated to understand its mechanism, pathogenesis and spreading characteristics. By this way, scientists try to develop different therapy and diagnose strategies. For these reasons, several metabolomics, proteomics and genomics studies were also carried out to improve knowledge in this newly identified virus. In this study, we are aimed to explain the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 exposure on postmortem COVID (+) patients via untargeted metabolomics analysis. To carry out this study, a Data Independent Acquisition SWATH method is optimized and performed. Vitreous samples were analyzed in both MS1 and MS2 ESI(+) mode. An orthogonal Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis were performed for classification. It was observed that lipid metabolism, several amino acids and oxidative stress biomarkers were strongly affected due to high inflammation and possible cytokine storm.

Effect of Early pregnancy associated protein-1 on Spike protein and ACE2 interactions: Implications in SARS Cov-2 vertical transmission.

INTRODUCTION: Several factors influence transmission of 2019-nCoV from mother to fetus during pregnancy, thus the dynamics of vertical transmission is unclear. The role of cellular protective factors, namely a 90 KDa glycoprotein, Early pregnancy-associated protein (Epap-1), expressed by placental endothelial cells in women during early pregnancy would provide an insight into role of placental factors in virus transmission. Since viral spike protein binding to the ACE2 receptors of the host cells promotes virus invasion in placental tissue, an analysis of effects of Epap-1 on the Spike-ACE2 protein binding was studied. METHODS: Epap-1 was isolated from MTP placental tissue. Molecular interaction of Epap-1 and variants of the spike was analyzed in silco. The interaction of Epap-1 with Spike and RBD were analyzed using ELISA and immunofluorescence studies. RESULTS: The results in silico showed an interaction of Epap-1 with S-protein at RBD region involving K417, Y449, Y453, Y456, Y473, Q474, F486, Q498, N501 residues of spike with Y61, F287, I302, N303, N305, S334, N465, G467, N468 residues of Epap-1 leading to interference of S-protein and ACE2 interaction [1]. Further, the interaction is conserved among the variants. The studies in vitro confirm that Epap-1 affects S protein-ACE2 and RBD- ACE2 binding, thus suggesting that during early pregnancy, SARS CoV-2 infection may be protected by Epap-1 protein present in placental tissue. The results were further confirmed by pseudovirus expressing Spike and RBD in an infection assay. DISCUSSION: Epap-1 interferes with Spike and RBD interaction with ACE2, suggesting a possible mechanism of the antiviral environment during pregnancy.

Vascular endothelial-derived SPARCL1 exacerbates viral pneumonia through pro-inflammatory macrophage activation.

Inflammation induced by lung infection is a double-edged sword, moderating both anti-viral and immune pathogenesis effects; the mechanism of the latter is not fully understood. Previous studies suggest the vasculature is involved in tissue injury. Here, we report that expression of Sparcl1, a secreted matricellular protein, is upregulated in pulmonary capillary endothelial cells (EC) during influenza-induced lung injury. Endothelial overexpression of SPARCL1 promotes detrimental lung inflammation, with SPARCL1 inducing 'M1-like' macrophages and related pro-inflammatory cytokines, while SPARCL1 deletion alleviates these effects. Mechanistically, SPARCL1 functions through TLR4 on macrophages in vitro, while TLR4 inhibition in vivo ameliorates excessive inflammation caused by endothelial Sparcl1 overexpression. Finally, SPARCL1 expression is increased in lung ECs from COVID-19 patients when compared with healthy donors, while fatal COVID-19 correlates with higher circulating SPARCL1 protein levels in the plasma. Our results thus implicate SPARCL1 as a potential prognosis biomarker for deadly COVID-19 pneumonia and as a therapeutic target for taming hyperinflammation in pneumonia.

A ternary correlation multi-symptom network strategy based on in vivo chemical profile identification and metabolomics to explore the molecular basis of Ephedra herb against viral pneumonia.

Ephedra herb (EH), an important medicine prescribed in herbal formulas by Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners, has been widely used in the treatment of viral pneumonia in China. However, the molecular basis of EH in viral pneumonia remains unclear. In this study, a ternary correlation multi-symptom network strategy was established based on in vivo chemical profile identification and metabolomics to explore the molecular basis of EH against viral pneumonia. Results showed that 143 compounds of EH and 70 prototype components were identified in vivo. EH could reduce alveolar-capillary barrier disruption in rats with viral pneumonia and significantly downregulate the expression of inflammatory factors and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Plasma metabolomics revealed that EH may be involved in the regulation of arachidonic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, nicotinate, and nicotinamide metabolism. The multi-symptom network showed that 12 compounds have an integral function in the treatment of viral pneumonia by intervening in many pathways related to viruses, immunity and inflammation, and lung injury. Further verification demonstrated that sinapic acid and frambinone can regulate the expression of related genes. It has been shown to be a promising representative of the pharmacological constituents of ephedra.

Investigate the potential impact of Hemagglutinin from the H1N1 strain on severe pneumonia.

The most prevalent glycoprotein on the influenza virus envelope is called hemagglutinin (HA), yet little is known about its involvement in the pathophysiology and etiology of severe influenza pneumonia. Here, after stimulating human bronchial epithelial cells (16-HBE) and mice with HA of H1N1 for 12 h, we investigated the proliferation, migration, inflammatory cytokines expression, and apoptosis in 16-HBE and the pathological damage in mouse lung tissue. The expression of inflammatory cytokines plasminogen activator inhibitor 1(PAI-1), urokinase-type (uPA) and tissue-type (tPA) plasminogen activators, and apoptosis were all enhanced by HA, which also prevented the proliferation and migration of bronchial epithelial cells. HA enhanced up-regulated PAI-1, uPA, and tPA protein expression within mouse lung tissue and caused lung injury. In conclusion, HA alone, but not the whole H1N1 virus, induces lung tissue injury by inhibiting cell proliferation and migration, while promoting the expression of inflammatory cytokines and apoptosis.

Targeting IL-6 trans-signalling by sgp130Fc attenuates severity in SARS-CoV-2 -infected mice and reduces endotheliopathy.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 infection is considered as a relapsing inflammatory process with a dysregulation of IL-6 signalling. Classic IL-6 signalling is thought to represent a defence mechanism against pathogens. In contrast, IL-6 trans-signalling has pro-inflammatory effects. In severe COVID-19, therapeutic strategies have focused on global inhibition of IL-6, with controversial results. We hypothesized that specific blockade of IL-6 trans-signalling could inhibit inflammatory response preserving the host defence activity inherent to IL-6 classic signalling. METHODS: To test the role of the specific IL-6 trans-signalling inhibition by sgp130Fc in short- and long-term consequences of COVID-19, we used the established K18-hACE2 transgenic mouse model. Histological as well as immunohistochemical analysis, and pro-inflammatory marker profiling were performed. To investigate IL-6 trans-signalling in human cells we used primary lung microvascular endothelial cells and fibroblasts in the presence/absence of sgp130Fc. FINDINGS: We report that targeting IL-6 trans-signalling by sgp130Fc attenuated SARS-CoV-2-related clinical symptoms and mortality. In surviving mice, the treatment caused a significant decrease in lung damage. In vitro, IL-6 trans-signalling induced strong and persisting JAK1/STAT3 activation in endothelial cells and lung fibroblasts with proinflammatory effects, which were attenuated by sgp130Fc. Our data also suggest that in those cells with scant amounts of IL-6R, the induction of gp130 and IL-6 by IL-6:sIL-6R complex sustains IL-6 trans-signalling. INTERPRETATION: IL-6 trans-signalling fosters progression of COVID-19, and suggests that specific blockade of this signalling mode could offer a promising alternative to mitigate both short- and long-term consequences without affecting the beneficial effects of IL-6 classic signalling. These results have implications for the development of new therapies of lung injury and endotheliopathy in COVID-19. FUNDING: The project was supported by ISCIII, Spain (COV-20/00792 to MB, PI23/01351 to MARH) and the European Commission-Next generation EU (European Union) (Regulation EU 2020/2094), through CSIC's Global Health Platform (PTI Salud Global, SGL2103029 to MB). PID2019-110587RB-I00 (MB) supported by MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/and PID2022-143034OB-I00 (MB) by MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER. MAR-H acknowledges support from ISCIII, Spain and the European Commission-Next generation EU (European Union), through CSIC's Global Health PTI.

Implications of COVID-19 in Parkinson's disease: the purinergic system in a therapeutic-target perspective to diminish neurodegeneration.

The pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is marked by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. With advent of COVID-19, which is closely associated with generalized inflammation and multiple organ dysfunctions, the PD patients may develop severe conditions of disease leading to exacerbated degeneration. This condition is caused by the excessive release of pro-inflammatory markers, called cytokine storm, that is capable of triggering neurodegenerative conditions by affecting the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A possible SARS-CoV-2 infection, in serious cases, may compromise the immune system by triggering a hyperstimulation of the neuroimmune response, similar to the pathological processes found in PD. From this perspective, the inflammatory scenario triggers oxidative stress and, consequently, cellular dysfunction in the nervous tissue. The P2X7R seems to be the key mediator of the neuroinflammatory process, as it acts by increasing the concentration of ATP, allowing the influx of Ca2+ and the occurrence of mutations in the α-synuclein protein, causing activation of this receptor. Thus, modulation of the purinergic system may have therapeutic potential on the effects of PD, as well as on the damage caused by inflammation of the BBB, which may be able to mitigate the neurodegeneration caused by diseases. Considering all the processes of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction that PD propose, we can conclude that the P2X7 antagonist acts in the prevention of viral diseases, and it also controls purinergic receptors formed by multi-target compounds directed to self-amplification circuits and, therefore, may be a viable strategy to obtain the desired disease-modifying effect. Thus, purinergic system receptor modulations have a high therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases such as PD.

The extracellular cyclophilin A-integrin ß2 complex as a therapeutic target of viral pneumonia.

The acute respiratory virus infection can induce uncontrolled inflammatory responses, such as cytokine storm and viral pneumonia, which are the major causes of death in clinical cases. Cyclophilin A (CypA) is mainly distributed in the cytoplasm of resting cells and released into the extracellular space in response to inflammatory stimuli. Extracellular CypA (eCypA) is upregulated and promotes inflammatory response in severe COVID-19 patients. However, how eCypA promotes virus-induced inflammatory response remains elusive. Here, we observe that eCypA is induced by influenza A and B viruses and SARS-CoV-2 in cells, mice, or patients. Anti-CypA mAb reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines production, leukocytes infiltration, and lung injury in virus-infected mice. Mechanistically, eCypA binding to integrin ß2 triggers integrin activation, thereby facilitating leukocyte trafficking and cytokines production via the focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/GTPase and FAK/ERK/P65 pathways, respectively. These functions are suppressed by the anti-CypA mAb that specifically blocks eCypA-integrin ß2 interaction. Overall, our findings reveal that eCypA-integrin ß2 signaling mediates virus-induced inflammatory response, indicating that eCypA is a potential target for antibody therapy against viral pneumonia.

Precision treatment of viral pneumonia through macrophage-targeted lipid nanoparticle delivery.

Macrophages are integral components of the innate immune system, playing a dual role in host defense during infection and pathophysiological states. Macrophages contribute to immune responses and aid in combatting various infections, yet their production of abundant proinflammatory cytokines can lead to uncontrolled inflammation and worsened tissue damage. Therefore, reducing macrophage-derived proinflammatory cytokine release represents a promising approach for treating various acute and chronic inflammatory disorders. However, limited macrophage-specific delivery vehicles have hindered the development of macrophage-targeted therapies. In this study, we screened a pool of 112 lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to identify an optimal LNP formulation for efficient siRNA delivery. Subsequently, by conjugating the macrophage-specific antibody F4/80 to the LNP surface, we constructed MacLNP, an enhanced LNP formulation designed for targeted macrophage delivery. In both in vitro and in vivo experiments, MacLNP demonstrated a significant enhancement in targeting macrophages. Specifically, delivery of siRNA targeting TAK1, a critical kinase upstream of multiple inflammatory pathways, effectively suppressed the phosphorylation/activation of NF-kB. LNP-mediated inhibition of NF-kB, a key upstream regulator in the classic inflammatory signaling pathway, in the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7 significantly reduced the release of proinflammatory cytokines after stimulation with the viral RNA mimic Poly(I:C). Finally, intranasal administration of MacLNP-encapsulated TAK1 siRNA markedly ameliorated lung injury induced by influenza infection. In conclusion, our findings validate the potential of targeted macrophage interventions in attenuating inflammatory responses, reinforcing the potential of LNP-mediated macrophage targeting to treat pulmonary inflammatory disorders.

Human adenovirus infection induces pulmonary inflammatory damage by triggering noncanonical inflammasomes activation and macrophage pyroptosis.

Introduction: Human adenovirus (HAdV) is a common respiratory virus, which can lead to severe pneumonia in children and immunocompromised persons, and canonical inflammasomes are reported to be involved in anti-HAdV defense. However, whether HAdV induced noncanonical inflammasome activation has not been explored. This study aims to explore the broad roles of noncanonical inflammasomes during HAdV infection to investigate the regulatory mechanism of HAdV-induced pulmonary inflammatory damage. Methods: We mined available data on GEO database and collected clinical samples from adenovirus pneumonia pediatric patients to investigate the expression of noncanonical inflammasome and its clinical relevance. An in vitro cell model was employed to investigate the roles of noncanonical inflammasomes in macrophages in response to HAdV infection. Results: Bioinformatics analysis showed that inflammasome-related genes, including caspase-4 and caspase-5, were enriched in adenovirus pneumonia. Moreover, caspase-4 and caspase-5 expression levels were significantly increased in the cells isolated from peripheral blood and broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of pediatric patients with adenovirus pneumonia, and positively correlated with clinical parameters of inflammatory damage. In vitro experiments revealed that HAdV infection promoted caspase-4/5 expression, activation and pyroptosis in differentiated THP-1 (dTHP-1) human macrophages via NF-κB, rather than STING signaling pathway. Interestingly, silencing of caspase-4 and caspase-5 in dTHP-1 cells suppressed HAdV-induced noncanonical inflammasome activation and macrophage pyroptosis, and dramatically decreased the HAdV titer in cell supernatants, by influencing virus release rather than other stages of virus life cycle. Discussion: In conclusion, our study demonstrated that HAdV infection induced macrophage pyroptosis by triggering noncanonical inflammasome activation via a NF-kB-dependent manner, which may explore new perspectives on the pathogenesis of HAdV-induced inflammatory damage. And high expression levels of caspase-4 and caspase-5 may be a biomarker for predicting the severity of adenovirus pneumonia.

Interleukin-18-primed human umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cells achieve superior therapeutic efficacy for severe viral pneumonia via enhancing T-cell immunosuppression.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatments are still urgently needed for critically and severely ill patients. Human umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) infusion has therapeutic benefits in COVID-19 patients; however, uncertain therapeutic efficacy has been reported in severe patients. In this study, we selected an appropriate cytokine, IL-18, based on the special cytokine expression profile in severe pneumonia of mice induced by H1N1virus to prime hUC-MSCs in vitro and improve the therapeutic effect of hUC-MSCs in vivo. In vitro, we demonstrated that IL-18-primed hUC-MSCs (IL18-hUCMSC) have higher proliferative ability than non-primed hUC-MSCs (hUCMSCcon). In addition, VCAM-1, MMP-1, TGF-ß1, and some chemokines (CCL2 and CXCL12 cytokines) are more highly expressed in IL18-hUCMSCs. We found that IL18-hUCMSC significantly enhanced the immunosuppressive effect on CD3+ T-cells. In vivo, we demonstrated that IL18-hUCMSC infusion could reduce the body weight loss caused by a viral infection and significantly improve the survival rate. Of note, IL18-hUCMSC can also significantly attenuate certain clinical symptoms, including reduced activity, ruffled fur, hunched backs, and lung injuries. Pathologically, IL18-hUCMSC transplantation significantly enhanced the inhibition of inflammation, viral load, fibrosis, and cell apoptosis in acute lung injuries. Notably, IL18-hUCMSC treatment has a superior inhibitory effect on T-cell exudation and proinflammatory cytokine secretion in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Altogether, IL-18 is a promising cytokine that can prime hUC-MSCs to improve the efficacy of precision therapy against viral-induced pneumonia, such as COVID-19.

Histological characteristics of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 in asthmatic murine model during A(H1N1)pdm09 infection.

Pandemic influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09 infection occurred in healthy children and young adults, but asthmatic patients presented more rapid progression of respiratory distress and plastic bronchitis. To investigate the pathogenesis of worsening respiratory symptoms after A(H1N1)pdm09 infection, we focused on matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1). MMP-9 and TIMP-1 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and serum from mice with and without asthma were evaluated after A(H1N1)pdm09 or seasonal A(H1N1) infection. MMP-9 levels were more elevated in Asthma/A(H1N1)pdm09-infected mice than in non-Asthma/A(H1N1)pdm09-infected mice on both 3 and 7 days post-infection. Immunohistochemical findings in this pneumonia model showed that MMP-9 and TIMP-1 positive cells were observed in blood vessels and bronchus of lung tissue in severe pathological findings of pneumonia with asthma. Microscopically, shedding cells and secretions were conspicuous in the trachea on days 3 and 7 post-infection, in the A(H1N1)pdm09-infected mice with asthma. Our results suggest that MMP-9 and TIMP-1 expressions are related to severe pneumonia in the A(H1N1)pdm09 infection with asthma, leading to cause epithelial cell shedding.

Targeting ectromelia virus and TNF/NF-κB or STAT3 signaling for effective treatment of viral pneumonia.

Viral causes of pneumonia pose constant threats to global public health, but there are no specific treatments currently available for the condition. Antivirals are ineffective when administered late after the onset of symptoms. Pneumonia is caused by an exaggerated inflammatory cytokine response to infection, but tissue necrosis and damage caused by virus also contribute to lung pathology. We hypothesized that viral pneumonia can be treated effectively if both virus and inflammation are simultaneously targeted. Combined treatment with the antiviral drug cidofovir and etanercept, which targets tumor necrosis factor (TNF), down-regulated nuclear factor kappa B-signaling and effectively reduced morbidity and mortality during respiratory ectromelia virus (ECTV) infection in mice even when treatment was initiated after onset of clinical signs. Treatment with cidofovir alone reduced viral load, but animals died from severe lung pathology. Treatment with etanercept had no effect on viral load but diminished levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including TNF, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-12p40, TGF-ß, and CCL5 and dampened activation of the STAT3 cytokine-signaling pathway, which transduces signals from multiple cytokines implicated in lung pathology. Consequently, combined treatment with a STAT3 inhibitor and cidofovir was effective in improving clinical disease and lung pathology in ECTV-infected mice. Thus, the simultaneous targeting of virus and a specific inflammatory cytokine or cytokine-signaling pathway is effective in the treatment of pneumonia. This approach might be applicable to pneumonia caused by emerging and re-emerging viruses, like seasonal and pandemic influenza A virus strains and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

Role of CXCL5 in Regulating Chemotaxis of Innate and Adaptive Leukocytes in Infected Lungs Upon Pulmonary Influenza Infection.

Respirovirus such as influenza virus infection induces pulmonary anti-viral immune response, orchestration of innate and adaptive immunity restrain viral infection, otherwise causes severe diseases such as pneumonia. Chemokines regulate leukocyte recruitment to the inflammation site. One chemokine CXCL5, plays a scavenging role to regulate pulmonary host defense against bacterial infection, but its role in pulmonary influenza virus infection is underdetermined. Here, using an influenza (H1N1) infected CXCL5-/- mouse model, we found that CXCL5 not only responds to neutrophil infiltration into infected lungs at the innate immunity stage, but also affects B lymphocyte accumulation in the lungs by regulating the expression of the B cell chemokine CXCL13. Inhibition of CXCL5-CXCR2 axis markedly induces CXCL13 expression in CD64+CD44hiCD274hi macrophages/monocytes in infected lungs, and in vitro administration of CXCL5 to CD64+ alveolar macrophages suppresses CXCL13 expression via the CXCL5-CXCR2 axis upon influenza challenge. CXCL5 deficiency leads to increased B lymphocyte accumulation in infected lungs, contributing to an enhanced B cell immune response and facilitating induced bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue formation in the infected lungs during the late infection and recovery stages. These data highlight multiple regulatory roles of CXCL5 in leukocyte chemotaxis during pulmonary influenza infection.

Delayed angiopoietin-2 blockade reduces influenza-induced lung injury and improves survival in mice.

Influenza remains a major cause of death and disability with limited treatment options. Studies of acute lung injury have identified angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) as a key prognostic marker and a potential mediator of Acute respiratory distress syndrome. However, the role of Ang-2 in viral pneumonia remains poorly defined. This study characterized the time course of lung Ang-2 expression in severe influenza pneumonia and tested the therapeutic potential of Ang-2 inhibition. We inoculated adult mice with influenza A (PR8 strain) and measured angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), Ang-2, and Tie2 expressions during the evolution of inflammatory lung injury over the first 7 days post-infection (dpi). We tested a peptide-antibody inhibitor of Ang-2, L1-7, administered at 2, 4, and 6 dpi and measured arterial oxygen saturation, survival, pulmonary edema, inflammatory cytokines, and viral load. Finally, we infected primary human alveolar type II epithelial (AT2) cells grown in air-liquid interface culture with influenza and measured Ang-2 RNA expression. Influenza caused severe lung injury between 5 and 7 dpi in association with increased Ang-2 lung RNA and a dramatic increase in Ang-2 protein in bronchoalveolar lavage. Inhibition of Ang-2 improved oxygenation and survival and reduced pulmonary edema and alveolar-capillary barrier permeability to protein without major effects on inflammation or viral load. Finally, influenza increased the expression of Ang-2 RNA in human AT2 cells. The increased Ang-2 levels in the airspaces during severe influenza pneumonia and the improvement in clinically relevant outcomes after Ang-2 antagonism suggest that the Ang-1/Ang-2 Tie-2 signaling axis is a promising therapeutic target in influenza and potentially other causes of viral pneumonia.

Silent Hypoxemia in Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Review.

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, patients presented with COVID-19 pneumonia of varying severity. The phenomenon of severe hypoxemia without signs of respiratory distress is also known as silent or hidden hypoxemia. Although silent hypoxemia is not unique to pneumonia due to SARS-CoV-2 infection, this phenomenon is now recognized to be associated with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Proper management of critically ill patients is the key to reducing mortality. Herein, we summarize the possible and rare factors contributing to silent hypoxemia in patients with COVID-19. Microvascular thrombosis causes dead space ventilation in the lungs, and the flow of pulmonary capillaries is reduced, which leads to an imbalance in the V/Q ratio. The dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin shifts to the left and limits the release of oxygen to the tissue. SARS-CoV-2 interferes with the synthesis of hemoglobin and reduces the ability to carry oxygen. The accumulation of endogenous carbon monoxide and carboxyhemoglobin will reduce the total oxygen carrying capacity and interfere with pulse oxygen saturation readings. There are also some non-specific factors that cause the difference between pulse oximetry and oxygen partial pressure. We propose some potentially more effective clinical alternatives and recommendations for optimizing the clinical management processes of patients with COVID-19. This review aims to describe the prevalence of silent hypoxemia in COVID-19 pneumonia, to provide an update on what is known of the pathophysiology, and to highlight the importance of diagnosing silent hypoxemia in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

Building HMM and molecular docking analysis for the sensitive detection of anti-viral pneumonia antimicrobial peptides (AMPs).

Pneumonia is the main reason for mortality among children under five years, causing 1.6 million deaths every year; late research has exhibited that mortality is increasing in the elderly. A few biomarkers used for its diagnosis need specificity and precision, as they are related to different infections, for example, pulmonary tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus. There is a quest for new biomarkers worldwide to diagnose the disease to defeat these previously mentioned constraints. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are promising indicative specialists against infection. This research work used AMPs as biomarkers to detect viral pneumonia pathogens, for example, Respiratory syncytial virus, Influenza A and B viruses utilizing in silico technologies, such as Hidden Markov Model (HMMER). HMMER was used to distinguish putative anti-viral pneumonia AMPs against the recognized receptor proteins of Respiratory syncytial virus, Influenza A, and B viruses. The physicochemical parameters of these putative AMPs were analyzed, and their 3-D structures were determined utilizing I-TASSER. Molecular docking interaction of these AMPs against the recognized viral pneumonia proteins was carried out using the PATCHDOCK and HDock servers. The results demonstrated 27 anti-viral AMPs ranked based on their E values with significant physicochemical parameters in similarity with known experimentally approved AMPs. The AMPs additionally had a high anticipated binding potential to the pneumonia receptors of these microorganisms sensitively. The tendency of the putative anti-viral AMPs to bind pneumonia proteins showed that they would be promising applicant biomarkers to identify these viral microorganisms in the point-of-care (POC) pneumonia diagnostics. The high precision observed for the AMPs legitimizes HMM's utilization in the disease diagnostics' discovery process.