Mindfulness, teacher mental health, and well-being in early education: a correlational study.

This study analyzed the relationship between mindfulness and variables considered relevant for teacher-student interactions: teacher burnout, general stress, anxiety, depression, and quality of life. We hypothesized that mindfulness would relate negatively with mental health variables and positively with quality of life. We also explored which specific aspects of mindfulness would predict burnout, depression, anxiety, stress, and quality of life. Given the results of regression analyses, mediation models were performed to explore the mechanisms through which different facets of mindfulness affect quality of life. As predicted, the correlation analysis showed that mindfulness and its dimensions were positively associated with the quality of life of the teachers and burnout dimension of personal fulfillment and negatively associated with anxiety, depression, and stress (considering FFMQ total score and most of its dimensions). Consistently, regression analysis showed that the overall level of mindfulness, after controlling for the grade level at which the teacher works, showed significant associations with the level of personal fulfillment, depression, anxiety, stress, and quality of life. The results of the mediation analyses showed that the ability not to judge ourselves was associated with fewer symptoms of depression and stress and, through these pathways, positively affected quality of life. On the other hand, the ability not to react favored quality of life by reducing anxiety and stress. Finally, acting with awareness was the only facet of mindfulness that favored quality of life, affecting one of the dimensions of burnout.

Perceived impacts of a school-based growth mindset programme 'Mindset Teams' in Scotland: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Teachers as delivery agents within school-based mindset programmes is a potential intervention strategy for improving pupils' outcomes. The Mindset Teams programme, utilises teachers as delivery agents, with an aim to improve learning resilience for health and attainment outcomes among schools in Scotland. This study examined the perceived impacts of the programme to develop a programme theory of change and refine an earlier co-produced logic model. METHODS: Across six intervention schools, one-to-one interviews were conducted with teachers (N = 18) and focus groups were conducted with 23 pupils aged 8-11-years. Fourteen stakeholders involved in programme provision, secondary school delivery, funding decisions or policy-related areas also participated in a one-to-one interview. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis with a combined deductive and inductive coding approach. RESULTS: Themes were identified in relation to impacts on teachers (five themes), pupils (eight themes), and broader outcomes (two themes), with most themes discussed by teachers and wider stakeholders. Across data, findings highlighted the proposed mechanisms by which the programme was intending to produce impacts, largely through increasing teacher knowledge and facilitating a positive school environment. Themes demonstrated the breadth of perceived programme impacts, highlighting both attainment and wellbeing outcomes among pupils. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide support for Mindset programmes focusing on the development of teachers' mindsets, highlighting the resultant perceived impacts this can have on both teachers and pupils alike. Future research should seek to capture health and wellbeing measures alongside attainment data to fully explore programme impacts.

Teachers' perception on physical activity promotion in kindergarten children in China: a qualitative study connecting social-ecological model.

BACKGROUND: Globally, the majority of kindergarten-aged children face obesity issues and insufficient physical activity (PA) engagement. Regular PA participation can provide various health benefits, including obesity reduction, for kindergarten-aged children. However, limited studies have investigated the factors influencing kindergarten-aged children's PA engagement from the perspective of their teachers. This qualitative study aimed to identify factors that could help promote PA among kindergarten-aged children from teachers' perspectives, including facilitators, barriers, and teachers' recommendations. METHODS: Fifteen kindergarten teachers (age range: 28-50 years; mean age: 38.53 years) with teaching experience ranging from 2 to 31 years (mean: 16.27 years) were recruited from Shanghai municipality, Henan, and Jiangsu provinces in China. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted via face-to-face (n = 7) or telephone (n = 8) to gather insights into factors influencing PA promotion among kindergarten-aged children. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using a constant comparison approach based on grounded theory, which involved open, axial, and selective coding processes. RESULTS: The study revealed mutual theoretical support between themes and the social-ecological model (SEM), as factors identified in the study are distributed at various levels of the SEM. Twelve factors were identified at four levels of the SEM: (1) intrapersonal level (children's personality and skills), (2) interpersonal level (family, peers, and teachers influence), (3) organizational level (school environment and resources, opportunities for kindergarten teachers' training and children's PA, design and organization of PA, and PA that children need), (4) community level (family-school partnerships). CONCLUSION: Various factors at different levels can influence kindergarten-aged children's PA. The study's findings revealed that these factors are distributed across the first four levels of SEM, with the majority being at the organizational level. These multilevel findings are expected to assist in developing and implementing more effective PA interventions for kindergarten-aged children. Future research is warranted to identify strategies for promoting PA among kindergarten-aged children at the policy level of the SEM.

One Health education for criticality on vaccination in teacher training.

Introduction: Vaccines are the basis of health of our communities since they prevent severe infectious diseases. However vaccination rates continue to decrease due to the spread of misinformation about their side effects, which enhances vaccine hesitancy and puts at risk public health. Introducing vaccines from the One Health approach can help to develop an integral understanding of their role and to apply critical ignorance as part of criticality to avoid vaccine hesitancy and raise trust in science. This paper presents a design on vaccination for secondary-education teacher training developed toward this goal. Methods: The design presented in this paper draws from previous studies on critical thinking, on vaccine rejection, and the One Health approach on other health issues in Secondary Education. The focus of this design is engaging secondary-education pre-service teachers in the practice of critical ignorance and criticality to assess diverse pieces of information on vaccination from the One Health approach. Results: This study discusses the design principles and the activities of an original design that aims to provide Secondary Education teachers with some tools to introduce critical ignorance and criticality for addressing misinformation on vaccines by using the One Health approach. Discussion: If secondary science teachers are going to successfully confront misinformation on vaccination in their science instruction, we need to develop and test designs and approaches that prepare them for this purpose. Critical ignorance plays a central role in managing misinformation; thus, such instruction should engage future teachers in critical evaluation of information on vaccination, as well as in the application of the One Health approach to take responsible actions.

Teachers' assessment of the mental health of children with special educational needs during the war.

OBJECTIVE: Aim: To study the results of teachers' assessment of the mental health of high schoolers with special educational needs (SEN) after the 1.5 years of war in Ukraine. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and Methods: Teachers' assessment of the mental health of high schoolers with SEN was conducted through an anonymous survey of teachers using the questionnaire developed by the authors. The research, conducted in 2023, involved 739 teachers working with high schoolers (ages 6-10) with SEN. RESULTS: Results: It was found that 32.3 % of high schoolers were in the combat zone or on the temporarily occupied territory; 31.7 % of high schoolers were forced to leave their homes and were temporarily displaced, 17.7 % went through a separation from their parents, 15.8 % witnessed hostilities, and 3.8 % suffered bullying from their peers. In the educational process, high schoolers with SEN most often experienced anxiety (55.2 %), "emotional swings" (48.4 %), restlessness (44.8 %), fear (37.2 %). During the 1.5 years of war, 15.4 % of high schoolers began to study worse, 12.9 % began to spend more time playing computer games and on social media. It was found that 59.9 % of teachers need more information on maintaining the mental health of high schoolers with SEN. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: The results obtained proved the negative impact of hostilities on the territory of Ukraine on the mental health of high schoolers with SEN, which necessitates the provision of adequate psychological support by teachers of such high schoolers in the educational process.

Assessment and development of physical education teachers' physical literacy: A systematic review.

In recent years, physical literacy (PL) has gained a great deal of attention in global academia. Children's physical activity (PA) participation is severely underrepresented today, and students' participation in PA and PL level development is strongly dependent on the PL levels of PE teachers. This study aims to offer information for PE teachers to improve their PL levels and for the future development of tools to assess the PL of PE teachers through a systematic review of studies assessing PL of PE teachers. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) was used to conduct a comprehensive and systematic search in six databases-Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, ProQuest; and SportDiscus, and a total of 671 papers were retrieved, but after removing duplicates, article identification, and screening only eight papers met the inclusion criteria. This study's results indicate a paucity of research related to PL among PE teachers, focusing on children, students, older adults, and children with disabilities. PE teachers performed poorly in the physical competence domain and better in the cognitive and affective domains, with a moderate level of overall PL. Only one instrument is currently available to assess PE teachers' (perceived) PL, and other studies have used instrument components. Therefore, it was concluded that the current PE teachers' PL level is not high. Also, because the concept of PL among PE teachers has not been standardized, no tool has been developed to evaluate the PL of PE teachers comprehensively and systematically. The CPD (continuing professional development) is considered an effective means of enhancing PL among PE teachers, and research should prioritize the development of CPD programs and tools that are specifically tailored to assess PL among PE teachers in the future.

Knowledge and attitude of traumatic dental injuries in Mongolian schoolteachers.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic dental injury (TDI) is a growing public health concern worldwide, and children and adolescents are commonly affected. Because TDI often occurs at school, the response of teachers to these injuries is crucial. However, teachers in various countries have been shown to lack knowledge of effective TDI first-aid response and need an intervention to improve their knowledge. The aim of the study presented here was to ascertain and analyze teachers' knowledge of and attitude about TDI in Mongolia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study of full-time teachers in Mongolia was performed using an online questionnaire (compiled from relevant studies) from September 2022 to December 2022. The questionnaire consists of 47 items and among them 14 were used to assess the teacher's knowledge, and 5 were for attitude towards TDI. The maximum possible score was 14 points and grouped as follows good, moderate, and poor. T-test, ANOVA test (post-hoc) and linear regression analysis were performed. RESULTS: The online survey provided quantitative data from 2821 participants: 28% were elementary school teachers, 29% middle school teachers, and 42% high school teachers. Their mean age was 36.7 ± 9 years, and 2433 (86%) were female. The mean score of the TDI knowledge of the teachers was 5.3 ± 2.1 out of 14. The ANOVA test showed that older (p < 0.01) and more experienced teachers (p < 0.01) had higher scores. Teachers in the eastern (5.46 ± 2.2) and southern (5.49 ± 2.2) provinces had higher mean scores than in the other provinces (p < 0.02). Teachers majored in natural sciences (5.4 ± 2.2) had a higher score than those in the social sciences (5.2 ± 2.1) and difference were significant (p < 0.02). The multiple regression model statistically significantly predicted a one-year increase in experience, the TDI score increased 0.034 (95% CI 0.026, 0.043) unit. CONCLUSIONS: The knowledge regarding TDI and effective first-aid response to such injury is low in teachers in Mongolia. However, the teachers' attitude about TDI was positive and they wanted to learn and improve their knowledge. Therefore, further education and training programs are advised.

A Persian validation of the burnout assessment tool.

BACKGROUND: Burnout is an increasing public health concern. Its prevalence has extended across diverse professions globally, posing significant challenges to individuals, organizations, and society. This phenomenon has undermined employee well-being, productivity, and organizational effectiveness, making it a critical concern in contemporary work environments. The present study aimed to examine the adaptation and assess the validity of the Persian version of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT). METHODS: The adaptation process included the translation and back-translation of the BAT. Data were collected on a sample of 580 teachers using the convenience sampling. The BAT-Persian and Utrecht Work Engagement Scale were administered to collect the data. The reliability, factorial structure of the BAT-C and BAT-S, and the convergent and discriminant validity of BAT-C and work engagement were explored. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis supported a four-factor structure for the core dimensions (BAT-C; exhaustion, mental distance, emotional impairment, cognitive impairment), and a two-factor structure for the secondary dimensions (BAT-S; psychological distress, psychosomatic complaints). In the second-order model, the item loadings on the four factors of BAT-C ranged from 0.35 to 0.85, and on two factors of BAT-S ranged from 0.63 to 0.89. The Persian versions of the BAT-C and BAT-S showed good internal consistency (respectively, α = 0.95 and 0.90). Additional evidence supports the convergent and discriminant validity of the BAT-GR. the BAT-C and its scales were negatively correlated with work engagement and dimensions (i.e., vigor, dedication, and absorption). Moreover, the BAT-S and its scales negatively correlated with work engagement and dimensions. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided evidence that the Iranian version of BAT represents a reliable and valid tool for measuring burnout in the work context. A reliable and valid tool for assessing burnout in the Iranian workplace enables early detection of employee distress, allowing for timely intervention and support. This means that identifying the signs and symptoms of burnout in the early stages can prevent more severe consequences such as absenteeism, reduced productivity, or turnover.

Associations between Preschool Teachers' Food-Based Learning Frequency, Level of Personal Priority and Identified Resources and Challenges: A Needs Assessment.

Food-based learning (FBL) is the use of food as a teaching tool in the classroom, which can expose children to healthy foods to improve preference and consumption. However, more research is needed on the use and perception of FBL in the Head Start (HS) preschool classroom. In an online survey, we explored associations between North Carolina HS teachers' (n = 168) experiences (e.g., resources, challenges, needs, and preferences) with FBL, how frequently teachers implemented it, and how much they prioritized it. We used frequencies and chi-square tests of independence to assess associations between study variables. Teachers reported using FBL regularly with access to FBL resources (e.g., books and center play materials) and experiencing challenges (e.g., lack of funding and material resources). Teachers partnered with parents and farmers markets and expressed a need for additional FBL professional development. Our needs assessment findings revealed specific resources, challenges, and perceptions significantly associated with how often teachers used FBL and their priority level. Additional research should investigate how to alleviate FBL challenges and strategies to create policy and environmental changes that facilitate early FBL.

Children's questions and teachers' responses about COVID-19 in Türkiye and the US.

Question-asking is a crucial tool for acquiring information about unseen entities, such as viruses; thus, examining children's questions within the context of COVID-19 is particularly important for understanding children's learning about the coronavirus. The study examined 3-12-year-old children's questions and teachers' responses about the COVID-19 pandemic in Türkiye, a non-Western developing context, and the United States, a Western cultural context. A total of 119 teachers from Türkiye and 95 teachers from the US participated in the study. Teachers completed an online survey consisting of a demographic form and a questionnaire asking them to report three questions about COVID-19 asked by children in their classrooms and their responses to these questions. We analyzed children's questions and teachers' responses for their type and content and examined demographic factors associated with children's questions and teachers' responses. Consistent with the literature, children from Türkiye asked fewer explanation-seeking (i.e., why/how) questions than children from the United States. Children asked questions about viruses and precautions. Teachers responded to children's questions realistically in both countries. The findings have important implications for how children gain knowledge from teachers when discussing health, disease, and virus topics in two countries.

Systematic review of educator behaviours associated with physical activity of early years children.

BACKGROUND: Educators in early years settings influence children's physical activity (PA) levels through their pedagogical choices and behaviours. To date, minimal research has been conducted on the relationship between educator action and children's PA levels. The purpose of this systematic review was to understand which educator behaviours and actions in early years settings have been shown to engage children in PA. METHODS: Five online databases (Academic Search Complete, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL Complete and PubMed) were searched for articles that showed an association between educator behaviour and the PA level of children between the ages of zero and eight. RESULTS: Eleven studies met all inclusion criteria, yet showed great variability in design and data collection methods. The risk of bias was assessed using previously published criteria adapted to this study and inline with the CONSORT statement. A binomial test on the data revealed a statistically significant deviation from chance expectation (p < .001) in relation to educator action influencing child PA. Ten of the studies focussed on educator PA, four studies highlighted the use of prompting and encouragement, three studies analysed broad statements of adult interaction, two studies called for planning activity sessions and discussions and two studies encouraged role modelling. The low number of studies included in the review and the high risk of bias indicates that caution with these results is needed. CONCLUSIONS: While this review highlights the importance of educator PA (and other behaviours that had a positive association) on child PA level, it underscores the need for high-quality research to examine the relationship between educator actions and child PA. (PROSPERO registration: CRD42022338819).

Engagement with reservation-based Head Start teachers to explore their stress and coping: A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Native Americans residing in remote reservation communities find strength in connection to place, culture, language, and sovereignty; they also face challenges as their communities struggle with historical and contemporary traumas that have resulted in poverty, high crime and suicide rates and drug misuse. The psychological well-being of Head Start teachers who teach and support the needs of Native American children, is overlooked. METHODS: Qualitative interviews (n = 18) and focus groups (n = 9) were conducted with Head Start teachers, supervisors, parents, and ancillary staff to identify risk and protective factors at each level of the socioecological model (individual, relationships, community, society). Using content analysis and F4 analyse software two coders identified recurring themes. RESULTS: Individually teachers are resilient, focused more on the children's well-being than their own. Family was both significant support and stressor. Community struggles with drug and alcohol misuse and homelessness were the most frequent stressors. Workplace support included their supervisors and the mentorship they provided each other. Spirituality in the form traditional cultural practices, prayer and Christen faith were important sources of support and well-being. CONCLUSIONS: This paper provides insight into the stress and coping mechanisms of reservation-based Head Start teachers, identifying ways to protect and promote their health and well-being. It is important to provide support at all levels of the socioecological model to enable these teachers to strengthen their physical and psychological health and wellbeing so that they may support the children and families of Head Start to help strengthen Native American health overall.

Teachers' judgment accuracy: A replication check by psychometric meta-analysis.

Teachers' judgment accuracy is a core competency in their daily business. Due to its importance, several meta-analyses have estimated how accurately teachers judge students' academic achievements by measuring teachers' judgment accuracy (i.e., the correlation between teachers' judgments of students' academic abilities and students' scores on achievement tests). In our study, we considered previous meta-analyses and updated these databases and the analytic combination of data using a psychometric meta-analysis to explain variations in results across studies. Our results demonstrate the importance of considering aggregation and publication bias as well as correcting for the most important artifacts (e.g., sampling and measurement error), but also that most studies fail to report the data needed for conducting a meta-analysis according to current best practices. We find that previous reviews have underestimated teachers' judgment accuracy and overestimated the variance in estimates of teachers' judgment accuracy across studies because at least 10% of this variance may be associated with common artifacts. We conclude that ignoring artifacts, as in classical meta-analysis, may lead one to erroneously conclude that moderator variables, instead of artifacts, explain any variation. We describe how online data repositories could improve the scientific process and the potential for using psychometric meta-analysis to synthesize results and assess replicability.

Emotion regulation skills as a mediator of STEM teachers' stress, well-being, and burnout.

The teaching profession highly stressful, and teachers are often faced with challenging situations. This is particularly the case in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) education, which is a uniquely demanding and challenging field. This study examined the role of emotional regulation (ER) skills in STEM teachers' stress, well-being, and burnout. The sample included 165 STEM teachers in middle and high schools who completed standard online questionnaires on ER, stress, well-being, and burnout. They were also asked to comment on three videos depicting authentic mathematical and pedagogical situations. The results indicated that contrary to popular belief, seniority was not linked with levels of stress, difficulties in ER, lower levels of well-being, or higher levels of burnout. A structural equation model and bootstrapping analysis showed teachers' levels of stress predicted their well-being, and this link between stress and well-being was mediated by teachers' level of difficulty in ER. The study highlights the importance of STEM teachers' well-being and suggests the need to reduce stress and burnout by providing tools for teachers to regulate their emotions in the classroom.

Burnout, Engagement, and Resilience During the COVID-19 Lockdown: Keys to a Model for Teachers' Self-Efficacy.

BACKGROUND: Social isolation measures by the COVID-19 pandemic have impacted teaching work. In an "Emergency Remote Teaching" (ERT) context, it is relevant to investigate the factors that affect teachers' self-efficacy. METHODS: A total of 289 teachers from schools in southern Spain have participated in this study. They have been asked about their levels of burnout, engagement, and resilience. Comparisons were made by groups in accordance with sex, type of center they belonged to, school social context, and educational level in which the teacher taught. Using a Structural Equations Model, the multivariate relationships between the variables related to burnout, engagement, and resilience were described. RESULTS: During the ERT, teachers' self-efficacy was influenced by the 3 factors: burnout-exhaustion and cynicism-engagement, and resilience. During the ERT, the teachers in semi-private and private centers showed greater self-efficacy. In turn, the teachers in childhood and primary education showed a significantly higher level of work engagement than the teachers in compulsory and post-compulsory secondary education. CONCLUSIONS: The results in relation to ERT are discussed in the context of the exceptionality and universal globality of the pandemic phenomenon and the complex self-perception of the social value of the teaching function.

Facilitators and Barriers to Implementing a Comprehensive Sexual Health Education Policy in Chicago Public Schools.

BACKGROUND: In 2013, the Chicago Public Schools (CPS) district passed a policy requiring schools to deliver comprehensive sexual health education (SHE) to all K-12th grade students. A performance improvement case study was conducted in the 2019-2020 school year to evaluate the implementation of the policy and identify lessons learned to support implementation in schools. METHODS: Key informant interviews were conducted with 11 school principals and 29 teachers to discuss SHE implementation at their school. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed to assess school and classroom factors that affect implementation. Themes that cut across these factors were then identified and summarized by 2 evaluators. RESULTS: The following themes were identified across key informant interviews: (a) principal prioritization of SHE helps ensure SHE is implemented, (b) the expansion of school and teacher capacity facilitates SHE implementation, and (c) the creation of accountability mechanisms in classrooms and schools fosters adherence to SHE policy. CONCLUSIONS: Principals play a crucial role in building capacity to deliver SHE and ensuring SHE accountability mechanisms are implemented in their school. CPS is using these findings to adjust technical assistance and resources provided to principals and SHE instructors.

EFL Special Education Teachers' Perspectives: Evaluating Game-Based Learning for ADHD Behavioral Disorders.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the perspectives of English as a Foreign Language Special Education teachers (EFLSE) regarding game-based learning approaches for addressing behavioral disorders in ADHD patients. METHOD: The study involved a sample (n = 131) of EFLSE teachers who completed a questionnaire to determine how feasible, acceptable, and helpful they found game-based learning. RESULTS: The study revealed that EFLSE teachers perceive game-based learning to be a feasible and acceptable method for engaging ADHD students and helping to maintain their attention during game-based learning activities. Nevertheless, implementation and individualized approaches are cited as challenges. Additionally, EFLSE teachers emphasized the benefits of game-based learning, including improved problem-solving, assessment methods, collaboration, and the acquisition of academic skills. CONCLUSIONS: The study contributes insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers that can support the development of evidence-based interventions offering game-based learning for students with ADHD.

Mental Health Promotion in Hong Kong: A Service Evaluation of the Coolminds Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: It is vital to improve the mental health (MH) of young people in Hong Kong, where the suicide rate has nearly doubled among those aged 15-29 years since 2014. This multi-method evaluation aimed to assess Coolminds, which promoted MH literacy by engaging students, parents, and educators in secondary schools in Hong Kong. METHODS: Students, parents, and teachers completed self-report measures before and after attending workshops aimed at raising MH literacy. Pre- and post-survey data were collected between November 2021 and August 2022. Qualitative data from participant feedback and a focus group interview with Coolminds staff were analyzed using descriptive content analysis. RESULTS: The final dataset included 2903 students, 395 parents, and 325 educators from 52 schools. Only 3 schools had engagement with all 3 key groups. Significant improvements in MH knowledge were observed after the Coolminds workshops for all 3 groups. Qualitative analysis identified a reactive approach to MH issues, and bureaucratic and logistical challenges as barriers to implementation. CONCLUSION: Findings support the effectiveness of the Coolminds curriculum in improving MH literacy for each group and the demand for MH promotions in school settings. The implementation challenges indicate the need for future initiatives to better align with local needs and practices.

Knowing what they know: Preschool teachers' knowledge of math skills and its relation to instruction.

Math experiences during the preschool years play an important role in children's later math learning. Preschool teachers exhibit considerable variability in the amount and types of mathematics activities they engage in with their students; one potentially important source of these individual differences is adults' knowledge of early math development. The current study aimed to describe preschool teachers' knowledge of numeracy, patterning, and spatial/geometric skills developed in preschool and its relation to their reported mathematics instruction. Participants (N = 83) completed a survey in which they judged whether particular early math skills could be observed in typically developing 4-year-olds in the United States and reported their frequency of engaging in different math instructional activities. Pre- and in-service preschool teachers' knowledge varied across the different domains (i.e., numeracy, patterning, and spatial/geometric) of mathematical thinking, but their reported frequency of instruction did not. Teachers who were found to be more accurate in their knowledge of early math development were more likely to report higher frequency of math instruction; looking specifically at the domains, the strength of association between knowledge and instruction was the strongest for numeracy. Such findings highlight the possibility that supporting preschool teachers' knowledge of the range of math skills their students can be developing may be one component of improving early math teaching and learning.