Molecular dynamics simulations of lipid-protein interactions in SLC4 proteins.

The SLC4 family of secondary bicarbonate transporters is responsible for the transport of HCO3-, CO32-, Cl-, Na+, K+, NH3, and H+, which are necessary for regulation of pH and ion homeostasis. They are widely expressed in numerous tissues throughout the body and function in different cell types with different membrane properties. Potential lipid roles in SLC4 function have been reported in experimental studies, focusing mostly on two members of the family: AE1 (Cl-/HCO3- exchanger) and NBCe1 (Na+-CO32-cotransporter). Previous computational studies of the outward-facing state of AE1 with model lipid membranes revealed enhanced protein-lipid interactions between cholesterol (CHOL) and phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2). However, the protein-lipid interactions in other members of the family and other conformation states are still poorly understood and this precludes the detailed studies of a potential regulatory role for lipids in the SLC4 family. In this work, we performed coarse-grained and atomistic molecular dynamics simulations on three members of the SLC4 family with different transport modes: AE1, NBCe1, and NDCBE (an Na+-CO32-/Cl- exchanger), in model HEK293 membranes consisting of CHOL, PIP2, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin. The recently resolved inward-facing state of AE1 was also included in the simulations. Lipid-protein contact analysis of the simulated trajectories was performed with the ProLint server, which provides a multitude of visualization tools for illustration of areas of enhanced lipid-protein contact and identification of putative lipid binding sites within the protein matrix. We observed enrichment of CHOL and PIP2 around all proteins with subtle differences in their distribution depending on the protein type and conformation state. Putative binding sites were identified for CHOL, PIP2, phosphatidylcholine, and sphingomyelin in the three studied proteins, and their potential roles in the SLC4 transport function, conformational transition, and protein dimerization are discussed.

The electroneutral Na+-HCO3- cotransporter NBCn1 (SLC4A7) modulates colonic enterocyte pHi, proliferation, and migration.

NBCn1 (SLC4A7) is one of the two major Na+-HCO3- cotransporters in the human colonic epithelium, expressed predominantly in the highly proliferating colonocytes at the cryptal base. Increased NBCn1 expression levels are reported in tumors, including colorectal cancer. The study explores its importance for maintenance of the intracellular pH (pHi), as well as the proliferative, adhesive, and migratory behavior of the self-differentiating Caco2BBe colonic tumor cell line. In the self-differentiating Caco2BBe cells, NBCn1 mRNA was highly expressed from the proliferative stage until full differentiation. The downregulation of NBCn1 expression by RNA interference affected proliferation and differentiation and decreased intracellular pH (pHi) of the cells in correlation with the degree of knockdown. In addition, a disturbed cell adhesion and reduced migratory speed were associated with NBCn1 knockdown. Murine colonic Nbcn1-/- enteroids also displayed reduced proliferative activity. In the migrating Caco2BBe cells, NBCn1 was found at the leading edge and in colocalization with the focal adhesion markers vinculin and paxillin, which suggests that NBCn1 is involved in the establishment of cell-matrix adhesion. Our data highlight the physiological significance of NBCn1 in modulating epithelial pH homeostasis and cell-matrix interactions in the proliferative region of the colonic epithelium and unravel the molecular mechanism behind pathological overexpression of this transporter in human colorectal cancers.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The transporter NBCn1 plays a central role in maintaining homeostasis within Caco2BBe colonic epithelial cells through its regulation of intracellular pH, matrix adhesion, migration, and proliferation. These observations yield valuable insights into the molecular mechanism of the aberrant upregulation of this transporter in human colorectal cancers.

K+-Driven Cl-/HCO3- Exchange Mediated by Slc4a8 and Slc4a10.

Slc4a genes encode various types of transporters, including Na+-HCO3- cotransporters, Cl-/HCO3- exchangers, or Na+-driven Cl-/HCO3- exchangers. Previous research has revealed that Slc4a9 (Ae4) functions as a Cl-/HCO3- exchanger, which can be driven by either Na+ or K+, prompting investigation into whether other Slc4a members facilitate cation-dependent anion transport. In the present study, we show that either Na+ or K+ drive Cl-/HCO3- exchanger activity in cells overexpressing Slc4a8 or Slc4a10. Further characterization of cation-driven Cl-/HCO3- exchange demonstrated that Slc4a8 and Slc4a10 also mediate Cl- and HCO3--dependent K+ transport. Full-atom molecular dynamics simulation on the recently solved structure of Slc4a8 supports the coordination of K+ at the Na+ binding site in S1. Sequence analysis shows that the critical residues coordinating monovalent cations are conserved among mouse Slc4a8 and Slc4a10 proteins. Together, our results suggest that Slc4a8 and Slc4a10 might transport K+ in the same direction as HCO3- ions in a similar fashion to that described for Na+ transport in the rat Slc4a8 structure.

The role of Na+-coupled bicarbonate transporters (NCBT) in health and disease.

Cellular and organism survival depends upon the regulation of pH, which is regulated by highly specialized cell membrane transporters, the solute carriers (SLC) (For a comprehensive list of the solute carrier family members, see: https://www.bioparadigms.org/slc/ ). The SLC4 family of bicarbonate (HCO3-) transporters consists of ten members, sorted by their coupling to either sodium (NBCe1, NBCe2, NBCn1, NBCn2, NDCBE), chloride (AE1, AE2, AE3), or borate (BTR1). The ionic coupling of SLC4A9 (AE4) remains controversial. These SLC4 bicarbonate transporters may be controlled by cellular ionic gradients, cellular membrane voltage, and signaling molecules to maintain critical cellular and systemic pH (acid-base) balance. There are profound consequences when blood pH deviates even a small amount outside the normal range (7.35-7.45). Chiefly, Na+-coupled bicarbonate transporters (NCBT) control intracellular pH in nearly every living cell, maintaining the biological pH required for life. Additionally, NCBTs have important roles to regulate cell volume and maintain salt balance as well as absorption and secretion of acid-base equivalents. Due to their varied tissue expression, NCBTs have roles in pathophysiology, which become apparent in physiologic responses when their expression is reduced or genetically deleted. Variations in physiological pH are seen in a wide variety of conditions, from canonically acid-base related conditions to pathologies not necessarily associated with acid-base dysfunction such as cancer, glaucoma, or various neurological diseases. The membranous location of the SLC4 transporters as well as recent advances in discovering their structural biology makes them accessible and attractive as a druggable target in a disease context. The role of sodium-coupled bicarbonate transporters in such a large array of conditions illustrates the potential of treating a wide range of disease states by modifying function of these transporters, whether that be through inhibition or enhancement.

Rapid volume pulsations of the extracellular space accompany epileptiform activity in trauma-injured neocortex and depend on the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1.

Post traumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a treatment-resistant consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Recently, it has been revealed that epileptiform activity in acute chemoconvulsant seizure models is accompanied by transient shrinkages of extracellular space (ECS) called rapid volume pulsations (RVPs). Shrinkage of the ECS surrounding neurons and glia may contribute to ictogenic hyperexcitability and hypersynchrony during the chronic phase of TBI. Here, we identify the phenomenon of RVPs occurring spontaneously in rat neocortex at ≥ 3 weeks after injury in the controlled cortical impact (CCI) model for PTE. We further report that blocking the electrogenic action of the astrocytic cotransporter NBCe1 with 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS) eliminates both RVPs and epileptiform activity in ex-vivo CCI neocortical brain slices. We conclude that NBCe1-mediated extracellular volume shrinkage may represent a new target for therapeutic intervention in PTE.

Antibodies toward Na+,HCO3--cotransporter NBCn1/SLC4A7 block net acid extrusion and cause pH-dependent growth inhibition and apoptosis in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Na+,HCO3--cotransporter NBCn1/Slc4a7 accelerates murine breast carcinogenesis. Lack of specific pharmacological tools previously restricted therapeutic targeting of NBCn1 and identification of NBCn1-dependent functions in human breast cancer. METHODS: We develop extracellularly-targeted anti-NBCn1 antibodies, screen for functional activity on cells, and evaluate (a) mechanisms of intracellular pH regulation in human primary breast carcinomas, (b) proliferation, cell death, and tumor growth consequences of NBCn1 in triple-negative breast cancer, and (c) association of NBCn1-mediated Na+,HCO3--cotransport with human breast cancer metastasis. RESULTS: We identify high-affinity (KD ≈ 0.14 nM) anti-NBCn1 antibodies that block human NBCn1-mediated Na+,HCO3--cotransport in cells, without cross-reactivity towards human NBCe1 or murine NBCn1. These anti-NBCn1 antibodies abolish Na+,HCO3--cotransport activity in freshly isolated primary organoids from human breast carcinomas and lower net acid extrusion effectively in primary breast cancer tissue from patients with macrometastases in axillary lymph nodes. Inhibitory anti-NBCn1 antibodies decelerate tumor growth in vivo by ~50% in a patient-derived xenograft model of triple-negative breast cancer and pH-dependently reduce colony formation, cause G2/M-phase cell cycle accumulation, and increase apoptosis of metastatic triple-negative breast cancer cells in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Inhibitory anti-NBCn1 antibodies block net acid extrusion in human breast cancer tissue, particularly from patients with disseminated disease, and pH-dependently limit triple-negative breast cancer growth.

Inward Operation of Sodium-Bicarbonate Cotransporter 1 Promotes Astrocytic Na+ Loading and Loss of ATP in Mouse Neocortex during Brief Chemical Ischemia.

Ischemic conditions cause an increase in the sodium concentration of astrocytes, driving the breakdown of ionic homeostasis and exacerbating cellular damage. Astrocytes express high levels of the electrogenic sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter1 (NBCe1), which couples intracellular Na+ homeostasis to regulation of pH and operates close to its reversal potential under physiological conditions. Here, we analyzed its mode of operation during transient energy deprivation via imaging astrocytic pH, Na+, and ATP in organotypic slice cultures of the mouse neocortex, complemented with patch-clamp and ion-selective microelectrode recordings and computational modeling. We found that a 2 min period of metabolic failure resulted in a transient acidosis accompanied by a Na+ increase in astrocytes. Inhibition of NBCe1 increased the acidosis while decreasing the Na+ load. Similar results were obtained when comparing ion changes in wild-type and Nbce1-deficient mice. Mathematical modeling replicated these findings and further predicted that NBCe1 activation contributes to the loss of cellular ATP under ischemic conditions, a result confirmed experimentally using FRET-based imaging of ATP. Altogether, our data demonstrate that transient energy failure stimulates the inward operation of NBCe1 in astrocytes. This causes a significant amelioration of ischemia-induced astrocytic acidification, albeit at the expense of increased Na+ influx and a decline in cellular ATP.

SLC4A10 mutation causes a neurological disorder associated with impaired GABAergic transmission.

SLC4A10 is a plasma-membrane bound transporter that utilizes the Na+ gradient to drive cellular HCO3- uptake, thus mediating acid extrusion. In the mammalian brain, SLC4A10 is expressed in principal neurons and interneurons, as well as in epithelial cells of the choroid plexus, the organ regulating the production of CSF. Using next generation sequencing on samples from five unrelated families encompassing nine affected individuals, we show that biallelic SLC4A10 loss-of-function variants cause a clinically recognizable neurodevelopmental disorder in humans. The cardinal clinical features of the condition include hypotonia in infancy, delayed psychomotor development across all domains and intellectual impairment. Affected individuals commonly display traits associated with autistic spectrum disorder including anxiety, hyperactivity and stereotyped movements. In two cases isolated episodes of seizures were reported in the first few years of life, and a further affected child displayed bitemporal epileptogenic discharges on EEG without overt clinical seizures. While occipitofrontal circumference was reported to be normal at birth, progressive postnatal microcephaly evolved in 7 out of 10 affected individuals. Neuroradiological features included a relative preservation of brain volume compared to occipitofrontal circumference, characteristic narrow sometimes 'slit-like' lateral ventricles and corpus callosum abnormalities. Slc4a10 -/- mice, deficient for SLC4A10, also display small lateral brain ventricles and mild behavioural abnormalities including delayed habituation and alterations in the two-object novel object recognition task. Collapsed brain ventricles in both Slc4a10-/- mice and affected individuals suggest an important role of SLC4A10 in the production of the CSF. However, it is notable that despite diverse roles of the CSF in the developing and adult brain, the cortex of Slc4a10-/- mice appears grossly intact. Co-staining with synaptic markers revealed that in neurons, SLC4A10 localizes to inhibitory, but not excitatory, presynapses. These findings are supported by our functional studies, which show the release of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA is compromised in Slc4a10-/- mice, while the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is preserved. Manipulation of intracellular pH partially rescues GABA release. Together our studies define a novel neurodevelopmental disorder associated with biallelic pathogenic variants in SLC4A10 and highlight the importance of further analyses of the consequences of SLC4A10 loss-of-function for brain development, synaptic transmission and network properties.

The astrocytic Na+ -HCO3 - cotransporter, NBCe1, is dispensable for respiratory chemosensitivity.

The interoceptive homeostatic mechanism that controls breathing, blood gases and acid-base balance in response to changes in CO2 /H+ is exquisitely sensitive, with convergent roles proposed for chemosensory brainstem neurons in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) and their supporting glial cells. For astrocytes, a central role for NBCe1, a Na+ -HCO3 - cotransporter encoded by Slc4a4, has been envisaged in multiple mechanistic models (i.e. underlying enhanced CO2 -induced local extracellular acidification or purinergic signalling). We tested these NBCe1-centric models by using conditional knockout mice in which Slc4a4 was deleted from astrocytes. In GFAP-Cre;Slc4a4fl/fl mice we found diminished expression of Slc4a4 in RTN astrocytes by comparison to control littermates, and a concomitant reduction in NBCe1-mediated current. Despite disrupted NBCe1 function in RTN-adjacent astrocytes from these conditional knockout mice, CO2 -induced activation of RTN neurons or astrocytes in vitro and in vivo, and CO2 -stimulated breathing, were indistinguishable from NBCe1-intact littermates; hypoxia-stimulated breathing and sighs were likewise unaffected. We obtained a more widespread deletion of NBCe1 in brainstem astrocytes by using tamoxifen-treated Aldh1l1-Cre/ERT2;Slc4a4fl/fl mice. Again, there was no difference in effects of CO2 or hypoxia on breathing or on neuron/astrocyte activation in NBCe1-deleted mice. These data indicate that astrocytic NBCe1 is not required for the respiratory responses to these chemoreceptor stimuli in mice, and that any physiologically relevant astrocytic contributions must involve NBCe1-independent mechanisms. KEY POINTS: The electrogenic NBCe1 transporter is proposed to mediate local astrocytic CO2 /H+ sensing that enables excitatory modulation of nearby retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) neurons to support chemosensory control of breathing. We used two different Cre mouse lines for cell-specific and/or temporally regulated deletion of the NBCe1 gene (Slc4a4) in astrocytes to test this hypothesis. In both mouse lines, Slc4a4 was depleted from RTN-associated astrocytes but CO2 -induced Fos expression (i.e. cell activation) in RTN neurons and local astrocytes was intact. Likewise, respiratory chemoreflexes evoked by changes in CO2 or O2 were unaffected by loss of astrocytic Slc4a4. These data do not support the previously proposed role for NBCe1 in respiratory chemosensitivity mediated by astrocytes.

Dynamic localization of the Na+-HCO3- co-transporter NBCn1 to the plasma membrane, centrosomes, spindle and primary cilia.

Finely tuned regulation of transport protein localization is vital for epithelial function. The Na+-HCO3- co-transporter NBCn1 (also known as SLC4A7) is a key contributor to epithelial pH homeostasis, yet the regulation of its subcellular localization is not understood. Here, we show that a predicted N-terminal ß-sheet and short C-terminal α-helical motif are essential for NBCn1 plasma membrane localization in epithelial cells. This localization was abolished by cell-cell contact disruption, and co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) and proximity ligation (PLA) revealed NBCn1 interaction with E-cadherin and DLG1, linking it to adherens junctions and the Scribble complex. NBCn1 also interacted with RhoA and localized to lamellipodia and filopodia in migrating cells. Finally, analysis of native and GFP-tagged NBCn1 localization, subcellular fractionation, co-IP with Arl13B and CEP164, and PLA of NBCn1 and tubulin in mitotic spindles led to the surprising conclusion that NBCn1 additionally localizes to centrosomes and primary cilia in non-dividing, polarized epithelial cells, and to the spindle, centrosomes and midbodies during mitosis. We propose that NBCn1 traffics between lateral junctions, the leading edge and cell division machinery in Rab11 endosomes, adding new insight to the role of NBCn1 in cell cycle progression.

Bicarbonate transporter SLC4A7 promotes EMT and metastasis of HNSCC by activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide. Currently, therapeutic modalities such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy are being used to treat HNSCC. However, the treatment outcomes of most patients are dismal because they are already in middle or advanced stage by the time of diagnosis and poorly responsive to treatments. It is therefore of great interest to clarify mechanisms that contribute to the metastasis of cells to identify possible targets for therapy. In this study, we identified the Na+ -coupled bicarbonate transporter, SLC4A7, play essential roles in the metastasis of HNSCC. Our results showed that the relative expression of SLC4A7 messenger RNA was highly expressed in HNSCCs samples from TCGA, and compared with precancerous cells of human oral mucosa (DOK), SLC4A7 was highly expressed in HNSCC cell lines. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that dysregulation of SLC4A7 had minor influence on the proliferation of HNSCC but impacted HNSCC's migration and invasion. Meanwhile, SLC4A7 could promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HNSCC. RNA-seq, KEGG pathway enrichment analysis and Western blot further revealed that downregulation of SLC4A7 in HNSCC cells inhibited the PI3K/AKT pathway. These findings were further validated via rescue experiments using a small molecule inhibitor of PI3K/mTOR (GDC-0980). Our findings suggest that SLC4A7 promotes EMT and metastasis of HNSCC through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, which may be a valuable predictive biomarker and potential therapeutic target in HNSCC.

The specific inhibition of the cardiac electrogenic sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter leads to cardiac hypertrophy.

Two alkalinizing mechanisms coexist in cardiac myocytes to maintain intracellular pH: sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter (electroneutral isoform NBCn1 and electrogenic isoform NBCe1) and sodium/proton exchanger (NHE1). Dysfunction of these transporters has previously been reported to be responsible for the development of cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the contribution of the downregulation of the NBCe1 to the development of cardiac hypertrophy. To specifically reduce NBCe1 expression, we cloned shRNA into a cardiotropic adeno-associated vector (AAV9-shNBCe1). After 28 days of being injected with AAV9-shNBCe1, the expression and the activity of NBCe1 in the rat heart were reduced. Strikingly, downregulation of NBCe1 causes significant hypertrophic heart growth, lengthening of the action potential in isolated myocytes, an increase in the duration of the QT interval and an increase in the frequency of Ca2+ waves without any significant changes in Ca2+ transients. An increased compensatory expression of NBCn1 and NHE1 was also observed. We conclude that reduction of NBCe1 is sufficient to induce cardiac hypertrophy and modify the electrical features of the rat heart.

The proximal tubule through an NBCe1-dependent mechanism regulates collecting duct phenotypic and remodeling responses to acidosis.

The renal response to acid-base disturbances involves phenotypic and remodeling changes in the collecting duct. This study examines whether the proximal tubule controls these responses. We examined mice with genetic deletion of proteins present only in the proximal tubule, either the A variant or both A and B variants of isoform 1 of the electrogenic Na+-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1). Both knockout (KO) mice have spontaneous metabolic acidosis. We then determined the collecting duct phenotypic responses to this acidosis and the remodeling responses to exogenous acid loading. Despite the spontaneous acidosis in NBCe1-A KO mice, type A intercalated cells in the inner stripe of the outer medullary collecting duct (OMCDis) exhibited decreased height and reduced expression of H+-ATPase, anion exchanger 1, Rhesus B glycoprotein, and Rhesus C glycoprotein. Combined kidney-specific NBCe1-A/B deletion induced similar changes. Ultrastructural imaging showed decreased apical plasma membrane and increased vesicular H+-ATPase in OMCDis type A intercalated cell in NBCe1-A KO mice. Next, we examined the collecting duct remodeling response to acidosis. In wild-type mice, acid loading increased the proportion of type A intercalated cells in the connecting tubule (CNT) and OMCDis, and it decreased the proportion of non-A, non-B intercalated cells in the connecting tubule, and type B intercalated cells in the cortical collecting duct (CCD). These changes were absent in NBCe1-A KO mice. We conclude that the collecting duct phenotypic and remodeling responses depend on proximal tubule-dependent signaling mechanisms blocked by constitutive deletion of proximal tubule NBCe1 proteins.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study shows that the proximal tubule regulates collecting duct phenotypic and remodeling responses to acidosis.

Distinguishing among HCO 3- , CO 3= , and H + as Substrates of Proteins That Appear To Be "Bicarbonate" Transporters.

BACKGROUND: Differentiating among HCO 3- , CO 3= , and H + movements across membranes has long seemed impossible. We now seek to discriminate unambiguously among three alternate mechanisms: the inward flux of 2 HCO 3- (mechanism 1), the inward flux of 1 CO 3= (mechanism 2), and the CO 2 /HCO 3- -stimulated outward flux of 2 H + (mechanism 3). METHODS: As a test case, we use electrophysiology and heterologous expression in Xenopus oocytes to examine SLC4 family members that appear to transport "bicarbonate" ("HCO 3- "). RESULTS: First, we note that cell-surface carbonic anhydrase should catalyze the forward reaction CO 2 +OH - →HCO 3- if HCO 3- is the substrate; if it is not, the reverse reaction should occur. Monitoring changes in cell-surface pH ( Δ pH S ) with or without cell-surface carbonic anhydrase, we find that the presumed Cl-"HCO 3 " exchanger AE1 (SLC4A1) does indeed transport HCO 3- (mechanism 1) as long supposed, whereas the electrogenic Na/"HCO 3 " cotransporter NBCe1 (SLC4A4) and the electroneutral Na + -driven Cl-"HCO 3 " exchanger NDCBE (SLC4A8) do not. Second, we use mathematical simulations to show that each of the three mechanisms generates unique quantities of H + at the cell surface (measured as Δ pH S ) per charge transported (measured as change in membrane current, ΔIm ). Calibrating ΔpH S /Δ Im in oocytes expressing the H + channel H V 1, we find that our NBCe1 data align closely with predictions of CO 3= transport (mechanism 2), while ruling out HCO 3- (mechanism 1) and CO 2 /HCO 3- -stimulated H + transport (mechanism 3). CONCLUSIONS: Our surface chemistry approach makes it possible for the first time to distinguish among HCO 3- , CO 3= , and H + fluxes, thereby providing insight into molecular actions of clinically relevant acid-base transporters and carbonic-anhydrase inhibitors.

Streptolysin S targets the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCn1 to induce inflammation and cytotoxicity in human keratinocytes during Group A Streptococcal infection.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS, Streptococcus pyogenes) is a Gram-positive human pathogen that employs several secreted and surface-bound virulence factors to manipulate its environment, allowing it to cause a variety of disease outcomes. One such virulence factor is Streptolysin S (SLS), a ribosomally-produced peptide toxin that undergoes extensive post-translational modifications. The activity of SLS has been studied for over 100 years owing to its rapid and potent ability to lyse red blood cells, and the toxin has been shown to play a major role in GAS virulence in vivo. We have previously demonstrated that SLS induces hemolysis by targeting the chloride-bicarbonate exchanger Band 3 in erythrocytes, indicating that SLS is capable of targeting host proteins to promote cell lysis. However, the possibility that SLS has additional protein targets in other cell types, such as keratinocytes, has not been explored. Here, we use bioinformatics analysis and chemical inhibition studies to demonstrate that SLS targets the electroneutral sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter NBCn1 in keratinocytes during GAS infection. SLS induces NF-κB activation and host cytotoxicity in human keratinocytes, and these processes can be mitigated by treating keratinocytes with the sodium-bicarbonate cotransport inhibitor S0859. Furthermore, treating keratinocytes with SLS disrupts the ability of host cells to regulate their intracellular pH, and this can be monitored in real time using the pH-sensitive dye pHrodo Red AM in live imaging studies. These results demonstrate that SLS is a multifunctional bacterial toxin that GAS uses in numerous context-dependent ways to promote host cell cytotoxicity and increase disease severity. Studies to elucidate additional host targets of SLS have the potential to impact the development of therapeutics for severe GAS infections.

Cell-Type Dependent Regulation of the Electrogenic Na+/HCO3- Cotransporter 1 (NBCe1) by Hypoxia and Acidosis in Glioblastoma.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and malignant brain tumour. It is characterised by transcriptionally distinct cell populations. In tumour cells, physiological pH gradients between the intracellular and extracellular compartments are reversed, compared to non-cancer cells. Intracellular pH in tumour cells is alkaline, whereas extracellular pH is acidic. Consequently, the function and/or expression of pH regulating transporters might be altered. Here, we investigated protein expression and regulation of the electrogenic sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter 1 (NBCe1) in mesenchymal (MES)-like hypoxia-dependent and -independent cells, as well as in astrocyte-like glioblastoma cells following chemical hypoxia, acidosis and elucidated putative underlying molecular pathways. Immunoblotting, immunocytochemistry, and intracellular pH recording with the H+-sensitive dye 2',7'-bis-(carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein were applied. The results show NBCe1 protein abundance and active NBCe1 transport. Hypoxia upregulated NBCe1 protein and activity in MES-like hypoxia-dependent GBM cells. This effect was positively correlated with HIF-1α protein levels, was mediated by TGF-ß signalling, and was prevented by extracellular acidosis. In MES-like hypoxia-independent GBM cells, acidosis (but not hypoxia) regulated NBCe1 activity in an HIF-1α-independent manner. These results demonstrate a cell-specific adaptation of NBCe1 expression and activity to the microenvironment challenge of hypoxia and acidosis that depends on their transcriptional signature in GBM.

The mTORC1-SLC4A7 axis stimulates bicarbonate import to enhance de novo nucleotide synthesis.

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions maintain pH homeostasis in eukaryotic cells and serve as a carbonyl donor to support cellular metabolism. However, whether the abundance of HCO3- is regulated or harnessed to promote cell growth is unknown. The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) adjusts cellular metabolism to support biomass production and cell growth. We find that mTORC1 stimulates the intracellular transport of HCO3- to promote nucleotide synthesis through the selective translational regulation of the sodium bicarbonate cotransporter SLC4A7. Downstream of mTORC1, SLC4A7 mRNA translation required the S6K-dependent phosphorylation of the translation factor eIF4B. In mTORC1-driven cells, loss of SLC4A7 resulted in reduced cell and tumor growth and decreased flux through de novo purine and pyrimidine synthesis in human cells and tumors without altering the intracellular pH. Thus, mTORC1 signaling, through the control of SLC4A7 expression, harnesses environmental bicarbonate to promote anabolic metabolism, cell biomass, and growth.

Molecular characterization, immunofluorescent localization, and expression levels of two bicarbonate anion transporters in the whitish mantle of the giant clam, Tridacna squamosa, and the implications for light-enhanced shell formation.

Giant clams conduct light-enhanced shell formation, which requires the increased transport of Ca2+ and inorganic carbon (Ci) from the hemolymph through the shell-facing epithelium of the whitish inner mantle to the extrapallial fluid where CaCO3 deposition occurs. The major form of Ci in the hemolymph is HCO3-, but the mechanisms of HCO3- transport through the basolateral and apical membranes of the shell-facing epithelial cells remain unknown. This study aimed to clone from the inner mantle of Tridacna squamosa the complete coding cDNA sequences of electrogenic Na+-HCO3-cotransporter 1 homolog (NBCe1-like-b) and electrogenic Na+-HCO3-cotransporter 2 homolog (NBCe2-like). NBCe1-like-b comprised 3360 bp, encoding a 125.7 kDa protein with 1119 amino acids. NBCe1-like-b was slightly different from NBCe1-like-a of the ctenidium reported elsewhere, as it had a serine residue (Ser1025), which might undergo phosphorylation leading to the transport of Na+: HCO3- at a ratio of 1: 2 into the cell. NBCe1-like-b was localized at the basolateral membrane of the shell-facing epithelial cells, and its gene and protein expression levels increased significantly in the inner mantle during illumination, indicating a role in the light-enhanced uptake of HCO3- from the hemolymph. The sequence of NBCe2-like obtained from the inner mantle was identical to that reported previously for the outer mantle. In the inner mantle, NBCe2-like had an apical localization in the shell-facing epithelial cells, and its protein abundance was upregulated during illumination. Hence, NBCe2-like might take part in the light-enhanced transport of HCO3- through the apical membrane of these cells into the extrapallial fluid.

Molecular insight into coordination sites for substrates and their coupling kinetics in Na+ /HCO3- cotransporter NBCe1.

The secondary active transporter NBCe1 couples the transmembrane movement of Na+ and carbonate species with an apparent stoichiometry of 1Na+ :2HCO3- (the 'influx' mode) or 1Na+ :3HCO3- (the 'efflux' mode). Here, we employed molecular biology, electrophysiology and structural biology approaches to investigate the molecular mechanism for the transport coupling of Na+ and HCO3- in NBCe1. In Xenopus oocytes, decreasing extracellular [HCO3- ] from 66 to 4 mm progressively decreases the Na+ affinity of NBCe1. However, decreasing [Na+ ] from 96 to 35 mm has little effect on the HCO3- affinity. The residues responsible for the coordination of Na+ and HCO3- in the substrate pocket of NBCe1 were respectively determined by mutational and molecular simulation studies. Mutation to the residues for HCO3- coordination decreased the affinities of NBCe1 for both Na+ and HCO3- . However, mutation to the residues for Na+ coordination decreased the affinity for Na+ but had little effect on the affinity for HCO3- . Molecular simulation showed that NBCe1 has the capacity to coordinate only two ions of HCO3- or CO32- . We propose that (1) NBCe1 has an ordered substrate-binding kinetics with the binding of HCO3- preceding that of Na+ ; (2) NBCe1 operating in the influx mode moves 1Na+  + 2HCO3- , whereas NBCe1 in the efflux mode moves 1Na+  + 1HCO3-  + 1CO32- . The substrate-binding kinetics of NBCe1 is distinct from the known kinetics models of many other Na+ -coupled transporters with Na+ binding preceding the driven solute. KEY POINTS: Under physiological conditions, the secondary active transporter NBCe1 can operate in the 'influx' mode with an apparent stoichiometry of 1Na+ :2HCO3- or in the 'efflux' mode with an apparent stoichiometry of 1Na+ :3HCO3- . NBCe1 has an ordered substrate-binding kinetics with HCO3- preceding the binding of Na+ . The kinetics of NBCe1 is distinct from the known kinetics of many other Na+ -driven cotransporters for which the binding of Na+ usually precedes the driven substrate. The residues responsible for the coordination of Na+ and those for carbonate species in the substrate-binding pocket of NBCe1 were determined by mutation and molecular simulation studies. The substrate-binding pocket of NBCe1 contains just two coordination sites for HCO3- or CO32- . It is proposed that NBCe1 in the influx mode moves 1Na+  + 2HCO3- across the plasma membrane, whereas NBCe1 in the efflux mode moves 1Na+ +1HCO3- +1CO32- .

Lack of Charge Interaction in the Ion Binding Site Determines Anion Selectivity in the Sodium Bicarbonate Cotransporter NBCe1.

The Na/HCO3 cotransporter NBCe1 is a member of SLC4A transporters that move HCO3- across cell membranes and regulate intracellular pH or transepithelial HCO3 transport. NBCe1 is highly selective to HCO3- and does not transport other anions; the molecular mechanism of anion selectivity is presently unclear. We previously reported that replacing Asp555 with a Glu (D555E) in NBCe1 induces increased selectivity to other anions, including Cl-. This finding is unexpected because all SLC4A transporters contain either Asp or Glu at the corresponding position and maintain a high selectivity to HCO3-. In this study, we tested whether the Cl- transport in D555E is mediated by an interaction between residues in the ion binding site. Human NBCe1 and mutant transporters were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, and their ability to transport Cl- was assessed by two-electrode voltage clamp. The results show that the Cl- transport is induced by a charge interaction between Glu555 and Lys558. The bond length between the two residues is within the distance for a salt bridge, and the ionic strength experiments confirm an interaction. This finding indicates that the HCO3- selectivity in NBCe1 is established by avoiding a specific charge interaction in the ion binding site, rather than maintaining such an interaction.