Cerebral organoids derived from Sandhoff disease-induced pluripotent stem cells exhibit impaired neurodifferentiation.

Sandhoff disease, one of the GM2 gangliosidoses, is a lysosomal storage disorder characterized by the absence of ß-hexosaminidase A and B activity and the concomitant lysosomal accumulation of its substrate, GM2 ganglioside. It features catastrophic neurodegeneration and death in early childhood. How the lysosomal accumulation of ganglioside might affect the early development of the nervous system is not understood. Recently, cerebral organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have illuminated early developmental events altered by disease processes. To develop an early neurodevelopmental model of Sandhoff disease, we first generated iPS cells from the fibroblasts of an infantile Sandhoff disease patient, then corrected one of the mutant HEXB alleles in those iPS cells using CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing technology, thereby creating isogenic controls. Next, we used the parental Sandhoff disease iPS cells and isogenic HEXB-corrected iPS cell clones to generate cerebral organoids that modeled the first trimester of neurodevelopment. The Sandhoff disease organoids, but not the HEXB-corrected organoids, accumulated GM2 ganglioside and exhibited increased size and cellular proliferation compared with the HEXB-corrected organoids. Whole-transcriptome analysis demonstrated that development was impaired in the Sandhoff disease organoids, suggesting that alterations in neuronal differentiation may occur during early development in the GM2 gangliosidoses.

Nutrient-driven O-GlcNAc in proteostasis and neurodegeneration.

Proteostasis is essential in the mammalian brain where post-mitotic cells must function for decades to maintain synaptic contacts and memory. The brain is dependent on glucose and other metabolites for proper function and is spared from metabolic deficits even during starvation. In this review, we outline how the nutrient-sensitive nucleocytoplasmic post-translational modification O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) regulates protein homeostasis. The O-GlcNAc modification is highly abundant in the mammalian brain and has been linked to proteopathies, including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's. C. elegans, Drosophila, and mouse models harboring O-GlcNAc transferase- and O-GlcNAcase-knockout alleles have helped define the role O-GlcNAc plays in development as well as age-associated neurodegenerative disease. These enzymes add and remove the single monosaccharide from protein serine and threonine residues, respectively. Blocking O-GlcNAc cycling is detrimental to mammalian brain development and interferes with neurogenesis, neural migration, and proteostasis. Findings in C. elegans and Drosophila model systems indicate that the dynamic turnover of O-GlcNAc is critical for maintaining levels of key transcriptional regulators responsible for neurodevelopment cell fate decisions. In addition, pathways of autophagy and proteasomal degradation depend on a transcriptional network that is also reliant on O-GlcNAc cycling. Like the quality control system in the endoplasmic reticulum which uses a 'mannose timer' to monitor protein folding, we propose that cytoplasmic proteostasis relies on an 'O-GlcNAc timer' to help regulate the lifetime and fate of nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. O-GlcNAc-dependent developmental alterations impact metabolism and growth of the developing mouse embryo and persist into adulthood. Brain-selective knockout mouse models will be an important tool for understanding the role of O-GlcNAc in the physiology of the brain and its susceptibility to neurodegenerative injury.

O-GlcNAcase deficiency suppresses skeletal myogenesis and insulin sensitivity in mice through the modulation of mitochondrial homeostasis.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: O-GlcNAcylation is implicated in modulating mitochondrial function, which is closely involved in regulating muscle metabolism. The presence of O-GlcNAcase (OGA), the enzyme involved in the removal of O-GlcNAc, in mitochondria was recently confirmed in rats. In the present study, we investigated the regulation of myogenesis and muscle insulin sensitivity to OGA in mice, with a focus on mitochondria. METHODS: C57BL/6J mice fed a high-fat diet for 4 months were used to observe mitochondrial density, activity and O-GlcNAcylation in muscle. Small interfering RNA and overexpression vectors were used to modulate protein content in vitro. RESULTS: High-fat feeding decreased the OGA level and largely increased mitochondrial O-GlcNAcylation in mouse skeletal muscle that was accompanied by decreased levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), decreased mitochondrial density and disrupted mitochondrial complex activities. Knockdown of OGA in C2C12 myoblasts promoted PGC-1α degradation, resulting in the suppression of mitochondrial biogenesis and myogenesis, whereas neither knockdown of O-GlcNAc transferase nor overexpression of OGA had significant effects on myogenesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction as evidenced by decreased ATP content and increased reactive oxygen species production, and increased lipid and protein oxidation was observed in both myoblasts and myotubes after OGA knockdown. Meanwhile, elevated O-GlcNAcylation through either OGA knockdown or treatment with the OGA inhibitor PUGNAc and the O-GlcNAc transferase substrate D-GlcNAc suppressed myotube insulin signalling transduction and glucose uptake. OGA overexpression had no significant effect on insulin sensitivity but sufficiently improved the insulin resistance induced by D-GlcNAc treatment. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These data suggest that OGA can modulate mitochondrial density via PGC-1α and mitochondrial function via protein O-GlcNAcylation. In this manner, OGA appears to play a key role in myogenesis and the development of muscle insulin resistance.

Restricted ketogenic diet enhances the therapeutic action of N-butyldeoxynojirimycin towards brain GM2 accumulation in adult Sandhoff disease mice.

Sandhoff disease is an autosomal recessive, neurodegenerative disease involving the storage of brain ganglioside GM2 and asialo-GM2. Previous studies showed that caloric restriction, which augments longevity, and N-butyldeoxynojirimycin (NB-DNJ, Miglustat), an imino sugar that hinders the glucosyltransferase catalyzing the first step in glycosphingolipid biosynthesis, both increase longevity and improve motor behavior in the beta-hexosaminidase (Hexb) knockout (-/-) murine model of Sandhoff disease. In this study, we used a restricted ketogenic diet (KD-R) and NB-DNJ to combat ganglioside accumulation. Adult Hexb-/- mice were placed into one of the following groups: (i) a standard diet (SD), (ii) a SD with NB-DNJ (SD + NB-DNJ), (iii) a KD-R, and (iv) a KD-R with NB-DNJ (KD-R + NB-DNJ). Forebrain GM2 content (mug sialic acid/100 mg dry wt) in the four groups was 375 +/- 15, 312 +/- 8, 340 +/- 28, and 279 +/- 26, respectively, indicating an additive interaction between NB-DNJ and the KD-R. Most interestingly, brain NB-DNJ content was 3.5-fold greater in the KD-R + NB-DNJ mice than in the SD + NB-DNJ mice. These data suggest that the KD-R and NB-DNJ may be a potential combinatorial therapy for Sandhoff disease by enhancing NB-DNJ delivery to the brain and may allow lower dosing to achieve the same degree of efficacy as high dose monotherapy.

The cranial base in craniofacial development: a gene therapy study.

The etiology of midface retrusion remains largely unclear. We hypothesized that the cranial base synchondroses play a key role in the development of the craniofacial skeleton in the Sandhoff mouse model. We observed that developmental abnormalities of the cranial base synchondroses involving proliferative chondrocytes are important in craniofacial growth and development. Neonatal restitution of beta-hexosaminidase in mutant mice by gene therapy successfully ameliorated the attendant skeletal defects and restored craniofacial morphology in vivo, suggesting this as a critical temporal window in craniofacial development. Analysis of our data implicates parathyroid-related peptide (PTHrP) and cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) as possible factors underlying the development of the aforementioned skeletal defects. Hence, timely restitution of a genetic deficiency or, alternatively, the restoration of PTHrP or cyclo-oxygenase activity by the administration of PTH and/or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or COX-2 selective inhibitors to affected individuals may prove beneficial in the management of midface retrusion.

Neurochemical, morphological, and neurophysiological abnormalities in retinas of Sandhoff and GM1 gangliosidosis mice.

Retinal abnormalities are well documented in patients with ganglioside storage diseases. The total content and distribution of retinal glycosphingolipids was studied for the first time in control mice and in Sandhoff disease (SD) and GM1 gangliosidosis mice. Light and electron microscopy of the SD and the GM1 retinas revealed storage in ganglion cells. Similar to previous findings in rat retina, GD3 was the major ganglioside in mouse retina, while GM2 and GM1 were minor species. Total ganglioside content was 44% and 40% higher in the SD and the GM1 retinas, respectively, than in the control retinas. Furthermore, GM2 and GM1 content were 11-fold and 51-fold higher in the SD and the GM1 retinas than in the control retinas, respectively. High concentrations of asialo-GM2 and asialo-GM1 were found in the SD and the GM1 retinas, respectively, but were undetectable in the control retinas. The GSL abnormalities in the SD and the GM1 retinas reflect significant reductions in beta-hexosaminidase and beta-galactosidase enzyme activities, respectively. Although electroretinograms appeared normal in the SD and the GM1 mice, visual evoked potentials were subnormal in both mutants, indicating visual impairments. Our findings present a model system for assessing retinal pathobiology and therapies for the gangliosidoses.

Effective gene therapy in an authentic model of Tay-Sachs-related diseases.

Tay-Sachs disease is a prototypic neurodegenerative disease. Lysosomal storage of GM2 ganglioside in Tay-Sachs and the related disorder, Sandhoff disease, is caused by deficiency of beta-hexosaminidase A, a heterodimeric protein. Tay-Sachs-related diseases (GM2 gangliosidoses) are incurable, but gene therapy has the potential for widespread correction of the underlying lysosomal defect by means of the secretion-recapture cellular pathway for enzymatic complementation. Sandhoff mice, lacking the beta-subunit of hexosaminidase, manifest many signs of classical human Tay-Sachs disease and, with an acute course, die before 20 weeks of age. We treated Sandhoff mice by stereotaxic intracranial inoculation of recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors encoding the complementing human beta-hexosaminidase alpha and beta subunit genes and elements, including an HIV tat sequence, to enhance protein expression and distribution. Animals survived for >1 year with sustained, widespread, and abundant enzyme delivery in the nervous system. Onset of the disease was delayed with preservation of motor function; inflammation and GM2 ganglioside storage in the brain and spinal cord was reduced. Gene delivery of beta-hexosaminidase A by using adeno-associated viral vectors has realistic potential for treating the human Tay-Sachs-related diseases.

Lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase is up-regulated in oligodendrocytes in lysosomal storage diseases and binds gangliosides.

Lipocalin-type prostaglandin (PG) D synthase (L-PGDS) is a dually functional protein, acting both as a PGD2-synthesizing enzyme and as an extracellular transporter of various lipophilic small molecules. L-PGDS is expressed in oligodendrocytes (OLs) in the central nervous system and is up-regulated in OLs of the twitcher mouse, a model of globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe's disease). We investigated whether up-regulation of L-PGDS is either unique to Krabbe's disease or is a more generalized phenomenon in lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs), using LSD mouse models of Tay-Sachs disease, Sandhoff disease, GM1 gangliosidosis and Niemann-Pick type C1 disease. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that L-PGDS mRNA was up-regulated in the brains of all these mouse models. In addition, strong L-PGDS immunoreactivity was observed in OLs, but not in either astrocytes or microglia in these models. Thus, up-regulation of L-PGDS appears to be a common response of OLs in LSDs. Moreover, surface plasmon resonance analyses revealed that L-PGDS binds GM1 and GM2 gangliosides, accumulated in neurons in the course of LSD, with high affinities (KD = 65 and 210 nm, respectively). This suggests that L-PGDS may play a role in scavenging harmful lipophilic substrates in LSD.

Influence of caloric restriction on motor behavior, longevity, and brain lipid composition in Sandhoff disease mice.

Caloric restriction (CR), which improves health and increases longevity, was studied as a therapy in a hexosaminidase beta knockout mouse model of Sandhoff disease (SD), an incurable neurodegenerative disease involving accumulation of brain ganglioside GM2 and asialo-GM2 (GA2). Adult mice were fed a rodent chow diet either ad libitum (AL) or restricted to reduce body weight by 15-18% (CR). Although GM2 and GA2 were elevated, no significant differences were seen between the Hexb-/- and the Hexb+/- mice for most brain phospholipids and cholesterol. Cerebrosides and sulfatides were reduced in the Hexb-/- mice. In addition, rotorod performance was significantly worse in the Hexb-/- mice than in the Hexb+/- mice. CR, which decreased circulating glucose and elevated ketone bodies, significantly improved rotorod performance and extended longevity in the Hexb-/- mice but had no significant effect on brain lipid composition or on cytoplasmic neuronal vacuoles. The expression of CD68 and F4/80 was significantly less in the CR-fed than in the AL-fed Hexb-/- mice. We suggest that the CR delays disease progression in SD and possibly in other ganglioside storage diseases through anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Defective platelet beta-N-acetyl hexosaminidase content and release in chronic myeloproliferative disorders.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Abnormalities of platelet function or structure are a hallmark of chronic myeloproliferative disorders (MPD). In vivo platelet activation with the release of alpha- and delta-granules in the circulation is one of the most frequently described alterations in MPD. Platelets contain and release upon activation also lysosomes, and in particular beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase (Hex). We have assessed whether the content and in vivo release of Hex of platelets from MPD patients is altered. DESIGN AND METHODS: Twenty-three MPD patients were compared with 19 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. The activity of platelet beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase was measured in plasma, serum and in the capillary blood emerging from the skin wound inflicted for the measurement of the bleeding time. Lysosome integral membrane protein (LIMP or CD63), lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP-2 or CD107b) and P-selectin were evaluated by flow cytometry. Platelet aggregation in vitro and the release of beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase, ATP and beta-thromboglobulin were performed to study platelet reactivity. RESULTS: Hex levels in plasma were significantly higher in MPD than in controls while the release of Hex in the bleeding time blood, i.e. at a localized site of in vivo platelet plug formation, was lower in MPD and the platelet content of Hex was reduced. These changes were accompanied by in vivo platelet activation. Finally, the isoenzymatic pattern of Hex was altered in platelets of MPD patients, with a reduced amount of the Hex A isoform as compared with controls.b INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS: MPD patients present an altered platelet Hex content and release; prospective studies to assess whether altered platelet Hex is related to thrombotic/hemorrhagic complications and/or tissue fibrosis in MPD are warranted.

Impaired neurite outgrowth in the retina of a murine model of Sandhoff disease.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of lysosomal storage on the morphologic appearance and the neurite outgrowth capability of the retina in a mouse model of G(M2) gangliosidosis (Sandhoff disease). METHODS: Histopathologic appearances of retinas in Sandhoff (SD) mice at 3 and 4 months of age were examined by light and electron microscopy. Retinas of SD mice and wild-type (WT) mice at 1, 2, and 4 months of age were cultured in collagen gel in the presence or absence of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and neurite outgrowth was examined. RESULTS: Morphologic studies revealed accumulation of G(M2) ganglioside in the retinal ganglion cells of SD mice in a time-dependent manner. The number of neurites from the retinal explants after 7 and 10 days in culture were significantly lower in 2- and 4-month-old SD mice than in the age-matched WT mice. The application of BDNF significantly improved neurite outgrowth from the retina in both SD and WT mice at 2 months of age. At 4 months of age, BDNF was much less effective at stimulating neurite outgrowth in the retina of SD mice than in retina of WT mice. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that lysosomal storage of G(M2) ganglioside impairs the capability of neurite outgrowth in retinal ganglion cells in culture and that BDNF is effective at diminishing this impairment during the early stage of the disease.

A case refort of Sandhoff disease.

Sandhoff disease is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disease presenting bilateral optic atrophy and a cherry red spot in the macula. This case report presents the characteristics of a patient with Sandhoff disease as assessed by ophthalmic, neuroimaging, and laboratory procedures. Ophthalmologic examination revealed that the patient could not fixate her eyes on objects nor follow moving targets. A pale optic disc and a cherry red spot in the macula were seen in both eyes. Low signal intensity at the thalamus and high signal intensity at the cerebral white matter were noted in a T2-weighted brain MR image. A lysosomal enzyme assay using fibroblasts showed the marked reduction of both total beta-hexosaminidases, A and B. Based on the above clinical manifestations and laboratory findings, we diagnosed the patient as having Sandhoff disease.

Bicistronic lentiviral vector corrects beta-hexosaminidase deficiency in transduced and cross-corrected human Sandhoff fibroblasts.

Sandhoff disease is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disease characterized by a GM2 ganglioside intralysosomal accumulation. It is due to mutations in the beta-hexosaminidases beta-chain gene, resulting in a beta-hexosaminidases A (alphabeta) and B (betabeta) deficiency. Mono and bicistronic lentiviral vectors containing the HEXA or/and HEXB cDNAs were constructed and tested on human Sandhoff fibroblasts. The bicistronic SIV.ASB vector enabled a massive restoration of beta-hexosaminidases activity on synthetic substrates and a 20% correction on the GM2 natural substrate. Metabolic labeling experiments showed a large reduction of ganglioside accumulation in SIV.ASB transduced cells, demonstrating a correct recombinant enzyme targeting to the lysosomes. Moreover, enzymes secreted by transduced Sandhoff fibroblasts were endocytosed in deficient cells via the mannose 6-phosphate pathway, allowing GM2 metabolism restoration in cross-corrected cells. Therefore, our bicistronic lentivector supplying both alpha- and beta-subunits of beta-hexosaminidases may provide a potential therapeutic tool for the treatment of Sandhoff disease.

Specific induction of macrophage inflammatory protein 1-alpha in glial cells of Sandhoff disease model mice associated with accumulation of N-acetylhexosaminyl glycoconjugates.

Sandhoff disease is a lysosomal storage disease caused by simultaneous deficiencies of beta-hexosaminidase A (HexA; alphabeta) and B (HexB; betabeta), due to a primary defect of the beta-subunit gene (HEXB) associated with excessive accumulation of GM2 ganglioside (GM2) and oligosaccharides with N-acetylhexosamine residues at their non-reducing termini, and with neurosomatic manifestations. To elucidate the neuroinflammatory mechanisms involved in its pathogenesis, we analyzed the expression of chemokines in Sandhoff disease model mice (SD mice) produced by disruption of the murine Hex beta-subunit gene allele (Hexb-/-). We demonstrated that chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1alpha) was induced in brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, brain stem and cerebellum, of SD mice from an early stage of the pathogenesis but not in other systemic organs. On the other hand, little changes in other chemokine mRNAs, including those of RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T expressed and secreted), MCP-1 (monocyte chemotactic protein-1), SLC (secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine), fractalkine and SDF-1 (stromal derived factor-1), were detected. Significant up-regulation of MIP-1alpha mRNA and protein in the above-mentioned brain regions was observed in parallel with the accumulation of natural substrates of HexA and HexB. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that MIP-1alpha-immunoreactivity (IR) in the above-mentioned brain regions of SD mice was co-localized in Iba1-IR-positive microglial cells and partly in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-IR-positive astrocytes, in which marked accumulation of N-acetylglucosaminyl (GlcNAc)-oligosaccharides was observed from the presymptomatic stage of the disease. In contrast, little MIP-1alpha-IR was observed in neurons in which GM2 accumulated predominantly. These results suggest that specific induction of MIP-1alpha might coincide with the accumulation of GlcNAc-oligosaccharides due to a HexB deficiency in resident microglia and astrocytes in the brains of SD mice causing their activation and acceleration of the progressive neurodegeneration in SD mice.

beta-hexosaminidase lentiviral vectors: transfer into the CNS via systemic administration.

Brain inflammation in GM2 gangliosidosis has been recently realized as a key factor in disease development. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a FIV beta-hexosaminidase vector in the brain of HexB-deficient (Sandhoff disease) mice following intraperitoneal administration to pups of neonatal age. Since brain inflammation, lysosomal storage and neuromuscular dysfunction are characteristics of HexB deficiency, these parameters were employed as experimental outcomes in our study. The ability of the lentiviral vector FIV(HEX) to infect murine cells was initially demonstrated with success in normal mouse fibroblasts and human Tay-Sachs cells in vitro. Furthermore, systemic transfer of FIV(HEX) to P2 HexB-/- knockout pups lead to transduction of peripheral and central nervous system tissues. Specifically, beta-hexosaminidase expressing cells were immunolocalized in periventricular areas of the cerebrum as well as in the cerebellar cortex. FIV(HEX) neonatal treatment resulted in reduction of GM2 storage along with attenuation of the brain inflammation and amelioration of the attendant neuromuscular deterioration. In conclusion, these results demonstrate the effective transfer of a beta-hexosaminidase lentiviral vector to the brain of Sandhoff mice and resolution of the GM2 gangliosidosis after neonatal intraperitoneal administration.

A Case Refort of Sandhoff Disease

Sandhoff disease is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disease presenting bilateral optic atrophy and a cherry red spot in the macula. This case report presents the characteristics of a patient with Sandhoff disease as assessed by ophthalmic, neuroimaging, and laboratory procedures. Ophthalmologic examination revealed that the patient could not fixate her eyes on objects nor follow moving targets. A pale optic disc and a cherry red spot in the macula were seen in both eyes. Low signal intensity at the thalamus and high signal intensity at the cerebral white matter were noted in a T2-weighted brain MR image. A lysosomal enzyme assay using fibroblasts showed the marked reduction of both total beta-hexosaminidases, A and B. Based on the above clinical manifestations and laboratory findings, we diagnosed the patient as having Sandhoff disease.

Sphingolipidoses in Turkey.

During the last 5 years 2057 children under the age of 5 with various neurologic symptoms with the suspected diagnosis of lysosomal storage diseases were referred to our hospital from different universities and state hospitals. We were able to separate sphingolipidoses by lysosomal enzyme screening. A total of 300 patients (15%) with sphingolipidoses were diagnosed; there were deficiencies of arylsulfatase A [metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD)] in 93 (31%), hexosaminidase [Sandhoff disease (SHD)] in 62 (20.7%), hexosaminidase A [Tay-Sachs disease (TSD)] in 15 (5%), beta-galactosidase (GM1 gangliosidosis) in 35 (11.7%), alpha-galactosidase (Fabry disease) in one (0.3%) cerebroside beta-galactosidase (Krabbe disease) in 65 (21.7%) and glucosylceramidase (Gaucher disease) in 29 (9.6%). SHD (20.7%), MLD (31%) and Krabbe disease (21.7%) were common. Prenatal enzymatic diagnosis was made in 70 at risk pregnancies, 64 for TSD and SHD, three for MLD and three for GM1 gangliosidosis by using chorionic villus biopsy in 54, cord blood samples in 12 and cultured amniotic fluid cells in four. Seventeen fetuses were found to be affected. We have calculated the relative frequency and minimum incidence of sphingolipidoses in Turkey. The combined incidence of sphingolipidoses is 4.615 per 100,000 live births. The calculated incidences are 1.43, 0.95, 1, 0.23, 0.54, 0.45, 0.015 per 100,000 live births for MLD, SHD, Krabbe, Gaucher, TSD, GM1 gangliosidosis and Fabry diseases, respectively. The real incidence, which covers all subtypes of this group of diseases, should be greater than this number. The results suggested that, as a group, sphingolipidoses are relatively common and represent an important health problem in Turkey and some rare autosomal recessive diseases of Turkey are due to 'founder effect' created by consanguineous marriages.

Phospholipid synthesis is decreased in neuronal tissue in a mouse model of Sandhoff disease.

Sandhoff disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutations in the HEXB gene which encodes for the beta-subunit of beta-hexosaminidase A and B, resulting in ganglioside GM(2) accumulation in the brain. We now demonstrate that phospholipid metabolism is altered in both cultured neurons and in brain tissue from a mouse model of Sandhoff disease, the Hexb-/- mouse. Metabolic labelling using [methyl-(14)C]choline and l-[3-(3)H]serine demonstrated reduced incorporation of [methyl-(14)C]choline into phospholipids in brain tissue but not in liver or spleen. Phospholipid mass was also reduced in brain. The activities of CTP : phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) and phosphatidylserine synthase were also reduced in brain tissue from Hexb-/- mice, probably because of post-translational modification as no changes were observed in levels of enzyme expression. The relevance of these findings to Sandhoff disease in human patients is strengthened by observations made over 30 years ago on autopsy tissue of Tay Sachs and Sandhoff disease patients, in which reduced phospholipid levels were observed. We suggest that changes in phospholipid metabolism are not simply because of loss of neuronal tissue as a result of degeneration but rather may cause degeneration, and we discuss the possible effects that changes in phospholipid metabolism could play in the neuropathophysiology of Sandhoff disease.