Visualization of BRI1 and SERK3/BAK1 Nanoclusters in Arabidopsis Roots.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant hormones that are perceived at the plasma membrane (PM) by the ligand binding receptor BRASSINOSTEROID-INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1) and the co-receptor SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR LIKE KINASE 3/BRI1 ASSOCIATED KINASE 1 (SERK3/BAK1). To visualize BRI1-GFP and SERK3/BAK1-mCherry in the plane of the PM, variable-angle epifluorescence microscopy (VAEM) was employed, which allows selective illumination of a thin surface layer. VAEM revealed an inhomogeneous distribution of BRI1-GFP and SERK3/BAK1-mCherry at the PM, which we attribute to the presence of distinct nanoclusters. Neither the BRI1 nor the SERK3/BAK1 nanocluster density is affected by depletion of endogenous ligands or application of exogenous ligands. To reveal interacting populations of receptor complexes, we utilized selective-surface observation-fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (SSO-FLIM) for the detection of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). Using this approach, we observed hetero-oligomerisation of BRI1 and SERK3 in the nanoclusters, which did not change upon depletion of endogenous ligand or signal activation. Upon ligand application, however, the number of BRI1-SERK3 /BAK1 hetero-oligomers was reduced, possibly due to endocytosis of active signalling units of BRI1-SERK3/BAK1 residing in the PM. We propose that formation of nanoclusters in the plant PM is subjected to biophysical restraints, while the stoichiometry of receptors inside these nanoclusters is variable and important for signal transduction.

On the Origin of SERKs: Bioinformatics Analysis of the Somatic Embryogenesis Receptor Kinases.

Somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinases (SERKs) are leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinases involved in several, seemingly unrelated, plant-signaling pathways. In Arabidopsis thaliana, functional and genetic analysis of four SERK proteins has indicated that they are only partly redundant; their functions overlap but each performs a specific subset of signaling roles. The molecular basis for the functional specificity within this highly homologous protein family is currently not known. Sequence analysis of SERK proteins from different plant species indicates that the SERKs are a highly conserved protein family present in monocots, dicots, and non-vascular plants. Residues in the extracellular domain that are important for interaction with other receptor kinases are highly conserved, even among SERK members without a function in the corresponding pathways. SERK2, for instance, does not function in the brassinosteroid pathway, does not interact with BRI1, but is conserved in its BRI1-interacting domain. Further sequence analysis indicates that SERK3/BAK1 and SERK4/BKK1 have diverged from the original SERK protein in both their extracellular and cytoplasmic domains. Functional analysis of chimeric SERK proteins shows that different domains provide the SERK proteins with different functional specificity. For instance, the SERK1 or SERK2 extracellular domains are essential for SERK function in male sporogenesis, while the SERK3 extracellular and cytoplasmic domains are essential for SERK3 activity in brassinosteroid and flagellin signaling. The emerging picture is that SERKs are ancient genes, whose products have been recruited as co-receptors in the newly evolved signaling pathways. The SERK ligand-binding and protein-protein interaction domains are highly conserved, allowing all SERKs to form complexes, albeit with different affinity. However, specific functional residues must have been altered, in both the extracellular and intracellular domains, to allow for the observed differences in functionality.

The Arabidopsis thaliana SERK1 kinase domain spontaneously refolds to an active state in vitro.

Auto-phosphorylating kinase activity of plant leucine-rich-repeat receptor-like kinases (LRR-RLK's) needs to be under tight negative control to avoid unscheduled activation. One way to achieve this would be to keep these kinase domains as intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) during synthesis and transport to its final location. Subsequent folding, which may depend on chaperone activity or presence of interaction partners, is then required for full activation of the kinase domain. Bacterially produced SERK1 kinase domain was previously shown to be an active Ser/Thr kinase. SERK1 is predicted to contain a disordered region in kinase domains X and XI. Here, we show that loss of structure of the SERK1 kinase domain during unfolding is intimately linked to loss of activity. Phosphorylation of the SERK1 kinase domain neither changes its structure nor its stability. Unfolded SERK1 kinase has no autophosphorylation activity and upon removal of denaturant about one half of the protein population spontaneously refolds to an active protein in vitro. Thus, neither chaperones nor interaction partners are required during folding of this protein to its catalytically active state.

Topological switching between an alpha-beta parallel protein and a remarkably helical molten globule.

Partially folded protein species transiently exist during folding of most proteins. Often these species are molten globules, which may be on- or off-pathway to native protein. Molten globules have a substantial amount of secondary structure but lack virtually all the tertiary side-chain packing characteristic of natively folded proteins. These ensembles of interconverting conformers are prone to aggregation and potentially play a role in numerous devastating pathologies, and thus attract considerable attention. The molten globule that is observed during folding of apoflavodoxin from Azotobacter vinelandii is off-pathway, as it has to unfold before native protein can be formed. Here we report that this species can be trapped under nativelike conditions by substituting amino acid residue F44 by Y44, allowing spectroscopic characterization of its conformation. Whereas native apoflavodoxin contains a parallel beta-sheet surrounded by alpha-helices (i.e., the flavodoxin-like or alpha-beta parallel topology), it is shown that the molten globule has a totally different topology: it is helical and contains no beta-sheet. The presence of this remarkably nonnative species shows that single polypeptide sequences can code for distinct folds that swap upon changing conditions. Topological switching between unrelated protein structures is likely a general phenomenon in the protein structure universe.