A high-resolution dynamic probabilistic material flow analysis of seven plastic polymers; A case study of Norway.

Plastic pollution has long been identified as one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. To tackle this problem, governments are setting stringent recycling targets to keep plastics in a closed loop. Yet, knowledge of the stocks and flows of plastic has not been well integrated into policies. This study presents a dynamic probabilistic economy-wide material flow analysis (MFA) of seven plastic polymers (HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PVC, EPS, and PET) in Norway from 2000 to 2050. A total of 40 individual product categories aggregated into nine industrial sectors were examined. An estimated 620 ± 23 kt or 114 kg/capita of these seven plastic polymers was put on the Norwegian market in 2020. Packaging products contributed to the largest share of plastic put on the market (∼40%). The accumulated in-use stock in 2020 was about 3400 ± 56 kt with ∼60% remaining in buildings and construction sector. In 2020, about 460 ± 22 kt of plastic waste was generated in Norway, with half originating from packaging. Although ∼50% of all plastic waste is collected separately from the waste stream, only around 25% is sorted for recycling. Overall, ∼50% of plastic waste is incinerated, ∼15% exported, and ∼10% landfilled. Under a business-as-usual scenario, the plastic put on the market, in-use stock, and waste generation will increase by 65%, 140%, and 90%, respectively by 2050. The outcomes of this work can be used as a guideline for other countries to establish the stocks and flows of plastic polymers from various industrial sectors which is needed for the implementation of necessary regulatory actions and circular strategies. The systematic classification of products suitable for recycling or be made of recyclate will facilitate the safe and sustainable recycling of plastic waste into new products, cap production, lower consumption, and prevent waste generation.

Global Historical Stocks and Emissions of PBDEs.

The first spatially and temporally resolved inventory of BDE28, 47, 99, 153, 183, and 209 in the anthroposphere and environment is presented here. The stock and emissions of PBDE congeners were estimated using a dynamic substance flow analysis model, CiP-CAFE. To evaluate our results, the emission estimates were used as input to the BETR-Global model. Estimated concentrations were compared with observed concentrations in air from background areas. The global (a) in-use and (b) waste stocks of ∑5BDE(28, 47, 99, 153, 183) and BDE209 are estimated to be (a) ∼25 and 400 kt and (b) 13 and 100 kt, respectively, in 2018. A total of 6 (0.3-13) and 10.5 (9-12) kt of ∑5BDE and BDE209, respectively, has been emitted to the atmosphere by 2018. More than 70% of PBDE emissions during production and use occurred in the industrialized regions, while more than 70% of the emissions during waste disposal occurred in the less industrialized regions. A total of 70 kt of ∑5BDE and BDE209 was recycled within products since 1970. As recycling rates are expected to increase under the circular economy, an additional 45 kt of PBDEs (mainly BDE209) may reappear in new products.

Product screening for sources of halogenated flame retardants in Canadian house and office dust.

Human exposure to halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their replacements, can be related to exposure to indoor dust and direct contact with HFR-containing products. This study aimed to identify electronic products that contributed to HFRs measured in indoor dust and to develop a screening method for identifying HFRs in hard polymer products. Concentrations of 10 PBDEs and 12 halogenated replacements in dust and surface wipe samples of hard polymer casings of electronic products plus Br in the surfaces of those casing measured using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were analyzed from 35 homes and 10 offices in Toronto (ON, Canada). HFR concentrations in dust and product wipes were positively correlated. Thus, we hypothesize that electronic products with the highest HFR concentrations contribute the most to concentrations in dust, regardless of the volatility of the HFR. Abundant HFRs in dust and product wipes were PBDEs (BDE-47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 209), TDCPP, DBDPE, EH-TBB and BEHTBP. Older CRT TVs had the highest concentration of BDE-209 of all products tested. This was followed by higher concentrations of HFRs in PCs, Audio/Video (A/V) devices, small household appliances (HHAs) and flat screen TVs. The removal of HFRs from polymer surfaces using wipes supports concerns that HFRs could be transferred from these surfaces to hands as a result of direct contact with HFR-containing products. Surface wipe testing shows promise for screening additive HFRs. In comparison, the Br-content obtained using a handheld XRF analyzer did not correspond to concentrations obtained from surface wipe testing.

Stocks and flows of PBDEs in products from use to waste in the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020.

The time-dependent stock of PBDEs contained in in-use products (excluding building materials and large vehicles) was estimated for the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020 based on product consumption patterns, PBDE contents, and product lifespan. The stocks of penta- and octaBDE peaked in in-use products at 17,000 (95% confidence interval: 6000-70,000) and 4,000 (1,000-50,000) tonnes in 2004, respectively, and for decaBDE at 140,000 (40,000-300,000) tonnes in 2008. Products dominating PBDE usage were polyurethane foam used in furniture (65% of pentaBDE), casings of electrical and electronic equipment or EEE (80% of octaBDE), and EEE and automotive seating (35% of decaBDE for each category). The largest flow of PBDEs in products, excluding automotive sector, to the waste phase occurred between 2005 and 2008 at ∼10,000 tonnes per year. Total consumption of penta-, octa-, and decaBDE from 1970 to 2020 in products considered was estimated at ∼46,000, ∼25,000, and ∼380,000 tonnes, respectively. Per capita usage was estimated at 10-250, 10-150, and 200-2000 g·capita(-1)·y(-1) for penta-, octa-, and decaBDE, respectively, over the time span. Considering only the first use (no reuse and/or storage) of PBDE-containing products, approximately 60% of the stock of PBDEs in 2014 or ∼70,000 tonnes, of which 95% is decaBDE, will remain in the use phase in 2020. Total emissions to air of all PBDEs from the in-use product stock was estimated at 70-700 tonnes between 1970 and 2020, with annual emissions of 0.4-4 tonnes·y(-1) for each of penta- and octaBDE and 0.35-3.5 tonnes·y(-1) for decaBDE in 2014.