Extracellular vesicle therapy attenuates antiangiogenic signaling in ischemic myocardium of swine with metabolic syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Our recent studies using a porcine model of metabolic syndrome (MS) and chronic myocardial ischemia show that extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy improves blood flow and arteriogenesis in ischemic myocardium, although mechanisms of these changes are unclear. We hypothesized that in the setting of MS, EV therapy would decrease antiangiogenic signaling to mediate increased blood flow to chronically ischemic myocardium. METHODS: Yorkshire swine were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks to induce MS, then underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor to the left circumflex artery to induce chronic myocardial ischemia. Two weeks later, pigs underwent intramyocardial injection of vehicle (control, n = 6) or human bone marrow-derived EVs (n = 8). Five weeks later, left ventricular myocardium in ischemic territory was harvested. Protein expression was measured using immunoblot analysis, and data were analyzed using Wilcoxon rank sum test. Myocardial perfusion was measured with isotope-labeled microspheres, and correlation data were analyzed using Spearman rank correlation coefficient. RESULTS: EV treatment was associated with decreased expression of antiangiogenic proteins, angiostatin (P < .001) and endostatin (P = .043) in ischemic myocardium compared with control. In EV-treated pigs, there was a negative correlation between blood flow to ischemic myocardium and angiostatin (rs = -0.76; P = .037), but not endostatin expression (rs = .02; P = .98). EV treatment was also associated with decreased cathepsin D, which cleaves precursors to produce angiostatin and endostatin, in ischemic myocardium (P = .020). CONCLUSIONS: In the setting of MS and chronic myocardial ischemia, EV therapy is associated with decreased expression of antiangiogenic proteins, which might contribute to increased blood flow to chronically ischemic myocardium.

Canagliflozin Improves Myocardial Perfusion, Fibrosis, and Function in a Swine Model of Chronic Myocardial Ischemia.

Background Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors are cardioprotective independent of glucose control, as demonstrated in animal models of acute myocardial ischemia and clinical trials. The functional and molecular mechanisms of these benefits in the setting of chronic myocardial ischemia are poorly defined. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of canagliflozin therapy on myocardial perfusion, fibrosis, and function in a large animal model of chronic myocardial ischemia. Methods and Results Yorkshire swine underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor to the left circumflex artery to induce chronic myocardial ischemia. Two weeks later, pigs received either no drug (n=8) or 300 mg sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor canagliflozin orally, daily (n=8). Treatment continued for 5 weeks, followed by hemodynamic measurements, harvest, and tissue analysis. Canagliflozin therapy was associated with increased stroke volume and stroke work and decreased left ventricular stiffness compared with controls. The canagliflozin group had improved perfusion to ischemic myocardium compared with controls, without differences in arteriolar or capillary density. Canagliflozin was associated with decreased interstitial and perivascular fibrosis in chronically ischemic tissue, with reduced Jak/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) signaling compared with controls. In ischemic myocardium of the canagliflozin group, there was increased expression and activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, decreased activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, and unchanged total endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Canagliflozin therapy reduced total protein oxidation and increased expression of mitochondrial antioxidant superoxide dismutase 2 compared with controls. Conclusions In the setting of chronic myocardial ischemia, canagliflozin therapy improves myocardial function and perfusion to ischemic territory, without changes in collateralization. Attenuation of fibrosis via reduced Jak/STAT signaling, activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and antioxidant signaling may contribute to these effects.

Extracellular vesicles modulate inflammatory signaling in chronically ischemic myocardium of swine with metabolic syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy has been shown to mitigate inflammation in animal models of acute myocardial ischemia/reperfusion. This study evaluates the effect of EV therapy on inflammatory signaling in a porcine model of chronic myocardial ischemia and metabolic syndrome. METHODS: Yorkshire swine were fed a high-cholesterol diet for 4 weeks to induce metabolic syndrome, then underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor to the left circumflex artery to induce chronic myocardial ischemia. Two weeks later, pigs received intramyocardial injection of either saline (control) (n = 6) or EVs (n = 8). Five weeks later, pigs were put to death and left ventricular myocardial tissue in ischemic and nonischemic territories were harvested. Protein expression was measured with immunoblotting, and macrophage count was determined by immunofluorescent staining of cluster of differentiation 68. Data were statistically analyzed via Wilcoxon rank-sum test. RESULTS: EV treatment was associated with decreased expression of proinflammatory markers nuclear factor kappa B (P = .002), pro-interleukin (IL) 1ß (P = .020), and cluster of differentiation 11c (P = .001) in ischemic myocardium, and decreased expression of nuclear factor kappa B in nonischemic myocardium (P = .03) compared with control. EV treatment was associated with increased expression of anti-inflammatory markers IL-10 (P = .020) and cluster of differentiation 163 (P = .043) in ischemic myocardium compared with control. There were no significant differences in expression of IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, arginase, HLA class II histocompatibility antigen DR alpha chain, nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor alpha, or phosphorylated nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor alpha in ischemic myocardium or pro-IL1ß, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-10, or nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor alpha in nonischemic myocardium of EV-treated pigs compared with control. There were no differences in macrophage count in ischemic myocardium between EV-treated pigs and control. CONCLUSIONS: In the setting of metabolic syndrome and chronic myocardial ischemia, intramyocardial EV therapy attenuates proinflammatory signaling.

Extracellular vesicles improve diastolic function and substructure in normal and high-fat diet models of chronic myocardial ischemia.

OBJECTIVE: The burden of mortality and morbidity of cardiovascular disease is in part due to substantial fibrosis accelerated by coexisting risk factors. This study aims to evaluate the effect of extracellular vesicle therapy on diastolic function and myocardial fibrosis in the setting of chronic myocardial ischemia with and without a high-fat diet. METHODS: Forty male Yorkshire swine were administered a normal or high-fat diet. At 11 weeks of age, they underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor on their left circumflex coronary artery. Both dietary groups then received either intramyocardial injection of vehicle saline as controls or extracellular vesicles as treatment into the ischemic territory (normal diet control, n = 8; high-fat diet controls, n = 11) or extracellular vesicles (normal diet extracellular vesicles, n = 9; high-fat diet extracellular vesicles, n = 12). Five weeks later, hemodynamic parameters, histology, and selected protein expression were evaluated. RESULTS: Extracellular vesicles reduced end-diastolic pressure volume relationship (P = .002), perivascular collagen density (P = .031), calcium mineralization (P = .026), and cardiomyocyte diameter (P < .0001), and upregulated osteopontin (P = .0046) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (P = .021). An interaction between extracellular vesicles and diet was observed in the vimentin area (P = .044) and fraction of myofibroblast markers to total vimentin (P = .049). Significant changes across diet were found with reductions in muscle fiber area (P = .026), tumor necrosis factor α (P = .0002), NADPH oxidase 2 and 4 (P = .0036, P = .008), superoxide dismutase 1 (P = .034), and phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (P = .020). CONCLUSIONS: Extracellular vesicle therapy improved the myocardium's ability to relax and is likely due to structural improvements at the extracellular matrix and cellular levels.

Lactobacillus plantarum probiotic induces Nrf2-mediated antioxidant signaling and eNOS expression resulting in improvement of myocardial diastolic function.

Yorkshire swine were fed standard diet (n = 7) or standard diet containing applesauce rich in caffeic acid with Lactobacillus plantarum (n = 7) for 3 wk. An ameroid constrictor was next placed around the left coronary circumflex artery, and the dietary regimens were continued. At 14 wk, cardiac function, myocardial perfusion, vascular density, and molecular signaling in ischemic myocardium were evaluated. The L. plantarum-applesauce augmented NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in the ischemic myocardium and induced Nrf2-regulated antioxidant enzymes heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NADPH dehydrogenase quinone 1 (NQO-1), and thioredoxin reductase (TRXR-1). Improved left ventricular diastolic function and decreased myocardial collagen expression were seen in animals receiving the L. plantarum-applesauce supplements. The expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) was increased in ischemic myocardial tissue of the treatment group, whereas levels of asymmetric dimethyl arginine (ADMA), hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), and phosphorylated MAPK (pMAPK) were decreased. Collateral-dependent myocardial perfusion was unaffected, whereas arteriolar and capillary densities were reduced as determined by α-smooth muscle cell actin and CD31 immunofluorescence in ischemic myocardial tissue. Dietary supplementation with L. plantarum-applesauce is a safe and effective method of enhancing Nrf2-mediated antioxidant signaling cascade in ischemic myocardium. Although this experimental diet was associated with a reduction in hypoxic stimuli, decreased vascular density, and without any change in collateral-dependent perfusion, the net effect of an increase in antioxidant activity and eNOS expression resulted in improvement in diastolic function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Colonization of the gut microbiome with certain strains of L. Plantarum has been shown to convert caffeic acid readily available in applesauce to 4-vinyl-catechol, a potent activator of the Nrf2 antioxidant defense pathway. In this exciting study, we show that simple dietary supplementation with L. Plantarum-applesauce-mediated Nrf2 activation supports vascular function, ameliorates myocardial ischemic diastolic dysfunction, and upregulates expression of eNOS.

Clinical Application of Novel Therapies for Coronary Angiogenesis: Overview, Challenges, and Prospects.

Cardiovascular diseases continue to be the leading cause of death worldwide, with ischemic heart disease as the most significant contributor. Pharmacological and surgical interventions have improved clinical outcomes, but are unable to ameliorate advanced stages of end-heart failure. Successful preclinical studies of new therapeutic modalities aimed at revascularization have shown short lasting to no effects in the clinical practice. This lack of success may be attributed to current challenges in patient selection, endpoint measurements, comorbidities, and delivery systems. Although challenges remain, the field of therapeutic angiogenesis is evolving, as novel strategies and bioengineering approaches emerge to optimize delivery and efficacy. Here, we describe the structure, vascularization, and regulation of the vascular system with particular attention to the endothelium. We proceed to discuss preclinical and clinical findings and present challenges and future prospects in the field.

Effects of High Fat Versus Normal Diet on Extracellular Vesicle-Induced Angiogenesis in a Swine Model of Chronic Myocardial Ischemia.

Background Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) promote angiogenesis in the ischemic myocardium. This study examines the difference in vascular density, myocardial perfusion, molecular signaling, and gene expression between normal diet (ND) and high fat diet (HFD) groups at baseline and following intramyocardial injection of EVs. Methods and Results Intact male Yorkshire swine fed either an ND (n=17) or HFD (n=14) underwent placement of an ameroid constrictor on the left circumflex coronary artery. Subsequently, animals received either intramyocardial injection of vehicle-saline as controls; (ND-controls n=7, HFD-controls, n=6) or EVs; (ND-EVs n=10, HFD-EVs n=8) into the ischemic territory. Five weeks later, myocardial function, perfusion, vascular density, cell signaling, and gene expression were examined. EVs improved indices of myocardial contractile function, myocardial perfusion, and arteriogenesis in both dietary cohorts. Interestingly, quantification of alpha smooth muscle actin demonstrated higher basal arteriolar density in HFD swine compared with their ND counterparts; whereas EVs were associated with increased CD31-labeled endothelial cell density only in the ND tissue, which approached significance. Levels of total endothelial nitric oxide synthase, FOXO1 (forkhead box protein O1) , transforming growth factor-ß, phosphorylated VEGFR2 (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2), and phosphorylated MAPK ERK1/ERK2 (mitogen-activated protein kinase) were higher in ischemic myocardial lysates from ND-controls compared with HFD-controls. Conversely, HFD-control tissue showed increased expression of phosphorylated endothelial nitric oxide synthase, phosphorylated FOXO1, VEGFR2, and MAPK ERK1/ERK2 with respect to ND-controls. Preliminary gene expression studies indicate differential modulation of transcriptional activity by EVs between the 2 dietary cohorts. Conclusions HFD produces a profound metabolic disorder that dysregulates the molecular mechanisms of collateral vessel formation in the ischemic myocardium, which may hinder the therapeutic angiogenic effects of EVs.