Lipid- and Polymer-Based Nanocarrier Platforms for Cancer Vaccine Delivery.

Cancer immunotherapy has gained popularity in recent years in the search for effective treatment modalities for various malignancies, particularly those that are resistant to conventional chemo- and radiation therapy. Cancer vaccines target the cancer-immunity cycle by boosting the patient's own immune system to recognize and kill cancer cells, thus serving as both preventative and curative therapeutic tools. Among the different types of cancer vaccines, those based on nanotechnology have shown great promise in advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have become the most advanced platforms for cancer vaccine delivery, but polymer-based NPs have also received considerable interest. This Review aims to provide an overview of the nanotechnology-enabled cancer vaccine landscape, focusing on recent advances in lipid- and polymer-based nanovaccines and their hybrid structures and discussing the challenges against the clinical translation of these important nanomedicines.

Human beta defensin (HBD) gene copy number affects HBD2 protein levels: impact on cervical bactericidal immunity in pregnancy.

Human beta defensin 2 (HBD2) is an endogenous mucosal antimicrobial peptide (AMP) upregulated during infection and inflammation. HBD2 is encoded by the DEFB4 gene, which exhibits extensive copy number variation. Previous studies have demonstrated a relationship between HBD copy number and serum HBD2 protein levels; however, our current understanding of the influence of copy number on mucosal AMP function remains limited. This study explores the relationship between HBD copy number, cervicovaginal HBD2 protein levels and antimicrobial activity in 203 women with risk factors for preterm birth. We provide evidence that suggests HBD copy number modulates cervical antimicrobial immunity.

No Evidence for Association of ß-Defensin Genomic Copy Number with HIV Susceptibility, HIV Load during Clinical Latency, or Progression to AIDS.

Common single-nucleotide variation in the host accounts for 25% of the variability in the plasma levels of HIV during the clinical latency stage (viral load set point). However, the role of rare variants and copy number variants remains relatively unexplored. Previous work has suggested copy number variation of a cluster of ß-defensin genes affects HIV load in treatment-naïve sub-Saharan Africans and rate of response to antiretroviral treatment. Here we analyse a total of 1827 individuals from two cohorts of HIV-infected individuals from Europe and sub-Saharan Africa to investigate the role of ß-defensin copy number variation on HIV load at set point. We find no evidence for association of copy number with viral load. We also compare distribution of ß-defensin copy number between European cases and controls and find no differences, arguing against a role of ß-defensin copy number in HIV acquisition. Taken together, our data argue against an effect of copy number variation of the ß-defensin region in the spontaneous control of HIV infection.

Determining multiallelic complex copy number and sequence variation from high coverage exome sequencing data.

BACKGROUND: Copy number variation (CNV) is a major component of genomic variation, yet methods to accurately type genomic CNV lag behind methods that type single nucleotide variation. High-throughput sequencing can contribute to these methods by using sequence read depth, which takes the number of reads that map to a given part of the reference genome as a proxy for copy number of that region, and compares across samples. Furthermore, high-throughput sequencing also provides information on the sequence differences between copies within and between individuals. METHODS: In this study we use high-coverage phase 3 exome sequences of the 1000 Genomes project to infer diploid copy number of the beta-defensin genomic region, a well-studied CNV that carries several beta-defensin genes involved in the antimicrobial response, signalling, and fertility. We also use these data to call sequence variants, a particular challenge given the multicopy nature of the region. RESULTS: We confidently call copy number and sequence variation of the beta-defensin genes on 1285 samples from 26 global populations, validate copy number using Nanostring nCounter and triplex paralogue ratio test data. We use the copy number calls to verify the genomic extent of the CNV and validate sequence calls using analysis of cloned PCR products. We identify novel variation, mostly individually rare, predicted to alter amino-acid sequence in the beta-defensin genes. Such novel variants may alter antimicrobial properties or have off-target receptor interactions, and may contribute to individuality in immunological response and fertility. CONCLUSIONS: Given that 81% of identified sequence variants were not previously in dbSNP, we show that sequence variation in multiallelic CNVs represent an unappreciated source of genomic diversity.

Is variation in copy number of the human beta defensin gene cluster associated with preterm birth?

BACKGROUND: Increased expression of antimicrobial peptides including human beta defensins (HBD) has been reported in the amniotic fluid and vaginal secretions of women who deliver preterm. We have previously shown that these women have increased first trimester serum HBD2. The gene encoding HBD2, DEFB4A, is part of a defensin beta (DEFB) cluster on chromosome 8 that is variable in copy number. Increased serum HBD2 is associated with increased DEFB copy number. We aimed to test the hypothesis that variation in DEFB copy number is associated with preterm birth. METHODS: In a retrospective, case-control study, genomic DNA and serum were extracted from blood collected from white European women at 11-13 weeks' gestation attending King's College Hospital between March 1, 2006, and Sept 30, 2010. DEFB copy number was determined by paralogue ratio test. Serum HBD2 concentration was measured by ELISA. Data were analysed with Pearson correlation (Excel, version 2010) and binary logistic regression (SPSS, version 20). FINDINGS: Cases were 102 women who either delivered preterm in the index pregnancy or had a history of preterm delivery. Controls were 152 women who had had at least one previous term delivery and delivered at term in the index pregnancy; they had no history of preterm birth. Modal copy number was 4 (range 2-7). Serum was available from 140 women (30 cases, 54 controls, 56 not included in the genetic association study). Median HBD2 concentration was 761·5 pg/mL (IQR 449·6-1232·0). There was no association between DEFB copy number and preterm birth, nor was there a correlation between copy number and serum HBD2 concentration. INTERPRETATION: Although variation in HBD2 protein expression in the first trimester might be useful to predict risk of preterm birth, we found no association between DEFB copy number and preterm birth. Nor did we find a correlation between DEFB copy number and serum HBD2 expression in the first trimester of pregnancy; this might be due to variation in regulatory sequences-some of which are progesterone and oestrogen sensitive-between individual copies. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust, Wellbeing of Women.

Evidence of convergent evolution in humans and macaques supports an adaptive role for copy number variation of the ß-defensin-2 gene.

ß-defensins are a family of important peptides of innate immunity, involved in host defense, immunomodulation, reproduction, and pigmentation. Genes encoding ß-defensins show evidence of birth-and-death evolution, adaptation by amino acid sequence changes, and extensive copy number variation (CNV) within humans and other species. The role of CNV in the adaptation of ß-defensins to new functions remains unclear, as does the adaptive role of CNV in general. Here, we fine-map CNV of a cluster of ß-defensins in humans and rhesus macaques. Remarkably, we found that the structure of the CNV is different between primates, with distinct mutational origins and CNV boundaries defined by retroviral long terminal repeat elements. Although the human ß-defensin CNV region is 322 kb and encompasses several genes, including ß-defensins, a long noncoding RNA gene, and testes-specific zinc-finger transcription factors, the orthologous region in the rhesus macaque shows CNV of a 20-kb region, containing only a single gene, the ortholog of the human ß-defensin-2 gene. Despite its independent origins, the range of gene copy numbers in the rhesus macaque is similar to humans. In addition, the rhesus macaque gene has been subject to divergent positive selection at the amino acid level following its initial duplication event between 3 and 9.5 Ma, suggesting adaptation of this gene as the macaque successfully colonized novel environments outside Africa. Therefore, the molecular phenotype of ß-defensin-2 CNV has undergone convergent evolution, and this gene shows evidence of adaptation at the amino acid level in rhesus macaques.

Copy number variation of the beta-defensin genes in europeans: no supporting evidence for association with lung function, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma.

Lung function measures are heritable, predict mortality and are relevant in diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD and asthma are diseases of the airways with major public health impacts and each have a heritable component. Genome-wide association studies of SNPs have revealed novel genetic associations with both diseases but only account for a small proportion of the heritability. Complex copy number variation may account for some of the missing heritability. A well-characterised genomic region of complex copy number variation contains beta-defensin genes (DEFB103, DEFB104 and DEFB4), which have a role in the innate immune response. Previous studies have implicated these and related genes as being associated with asthma or COPD. We hypothesised that copy number variation of these genes may play a role in lung function in the general population and in COPD and asthma risk. We undertook copy number typing of this locus in 1149 adult and 689 children using a paralogue ratio test and investigated association with COPD, asthma and lung function. Replication of findings was assessed in a larger independent sample of COPD cases and smoking controls. We found evidence for an association of beta-defensin copy number with COPD in the adult cohort (OR = 1.4, 95%CI:1.02-1.92, P = 0.039) but this finding, and findings from a previous study, were not replicated in a larger follow-up sample(OR = 0.89, 95%CI:0.72-1.07, P = 0.217). No robust evidence of association with asthma in children was observed. We found no evidence for association between beta-defensin copy number and lung function in the general populations. Our findings suggest that previous reports of association of beta-defensin copy number with COPD should be viewed with caution. Suboptimal measurement of copy number can lead to spurious associations. Further beta-defensin copy number measurement in larger sample sizes of COPD cases and children with asthma are needed.