Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and molecular identification of beta-tubulin mutations associated with benzimidazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus in goats from selected districts of Uganda.

Gastrointestinal parasites are among the most economically important pathogens of small ruminants causing serious economic losses and animal welfare problems for the livestock industry worldwide. The emergence of anthelmintic resistant H. contortus in small ruminants is a serious problem because it undermines effective helminth control and results in reduced productivity. Little is known about resistance to benzimidazoles (BZ) in Haemonchus in goats and sheep in Uganda. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and to identify the presence of benzimidazole resistance associated mutations in the ß-tubulin isotype 1 gene of Haemonchus contortus in goats from selected districts of Uganda. A total of 200 goats from 10 districts of Uganda slaughtered at Kalerwe abattoir in Kampala were sampled for H. contortus adult worms. Faecal samples were also collected to detect other intestinal parasites. Faecal microscopy and analysis were performed using flotation and sedimentation techniques. DNA was extracted from adult worms and PCR and sequencing of the ITS- 2 region and ß-tubulin isotype 1 gene performed to identify H. contortus species and to determine the presence of mutations associated with anthelmintic resistance respectively. Faecal microscopy showed that the most prevalent intestinal parasites were coccidia (98%), strongyles (97.5%), Strongyloides (82%), Paramphistomum (74.5%), Moniezia (46%), Fasciola (1.5%) and Trichuris (1%). Most goats had a high intestinal burden of coccidia (≥ 5000 oocyst per gram) and strongyles (≥ 1000 egg per gram), 65% and 67.5%, respectively. The prevalence of H. contortus adult worms was 63% (126/200). Sequencing of the partial ß-tubulin isotype 1 gene of 54 Haemonchus contortus adult male isolates revealed the presence of mutations associated with anthelmintic resistance. The F200Y mutation was the most common mutation (13% of samples with good beta-tubulin sequences) followed by the E198A and E198K mutations, both found in 9% of sequenced samples. Mutation F167Y was not identified in any of the samples and there were no heterozygous individuals for any of the SNPS associated with BZ resistance that were identified in this study. These findings highlight the need for controlled use of anthelmintics especially benzimidazoles, to enable sustainable control of H. contortus in Uganda, and a need for further investigation to understand the resistance of other parasites identified in this study.

Barriers to vaccine use in small ruminants and poultry in Tanzania.

Vaccination is an important disease prevention and control measure; however, vaccine adoption by livestock farmers in Tanzania is still low. This cross-sectional study examined the challenges to vaccine use faced by livestock owners and animal health professionals (AHPs) in Tanzania. A questionnaire was administered to 216 households that kept small ruminants and poultry and 19 AHPs' data were collected electronically via the survey platform Qualtrics, and descriptive statistics were performed. Households with poultry reported vaccinating mostly against Newcastle disease (91.7%), fowl pox (48.1%) and Gumboro disease (37.0%), whilst households with small ruminants reported contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (62.2%), sheep and goat pox (17.1%), foot-and-mouth disease (7.3%) and peste des petits ruminants (7.3%). The households' decision to vaccinate was mostly influenced by knowledge of diseases (82.4%), disease history on the farm (69.4%) and vaccine price (63.4%). Most households (54.6%) experienced challenges when purchasing vaccines, including high vaccine cost (78.0%), long distance from vaccine source (61.0%) and vaccine unavailability (21.2%). The findings suggest that improving the knowledge of livestock owners regarding the priority diseases and the benefits of vaccination, establishing more vaccine suppliers, improving vaccine distribution and access and training AHPs and households on appropriate vaccine storage and handling are necessary to improve vaccine adoption and ensure vaccine quality and effectiveness.

Epidemiology of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Nigeria: A Review.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a major constraint to the productivity of small ruminants in Nigeria. Understanding of the current epidemiological status of PPR is crucial to its effective control. A review of the epidemiology of PPR in Nigeria was performed and research gaps were identified. Thirty-seven eligible articles were reviewed: these presented information from 30 of the 36 states of Nigeria. Most studies focused on goats and/or sheep (n = 33) but camels (n = 4), cattle (n = 1) and wild ruminants (n = 2) were also considered. Fourteen (37.8%) of the articles reported seroprevalence in small ruminants, which varied from 0.0% to 77.5% where more than 10 animals were sampled. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis were performed in 6 studies, with lineages II and IV, detected in sheep and goats. In one study in small ruminants, sequences clustering into lineage I showed a similarity to the vaccine strain, Nigeria 75/1, based on phylogenetic analysis of F gene sequences. However, if the preferred method of sequencing the N gene had been performed, this isolate would have been grouped into lineage II. According to N gene phylogenetic analysis in the other studies, sequences were identified that clustered with clade II-NigA, II-NigB (closely related to the Nigeria 75/1 vaccine strain), and others which were well separated, suggesting a high diversity of PPRV in Nigeria. Five articles reported the detection of lineage IV in 22/36 states, with IV-NigA and IV-NigB detected, highlighting its widespread distribution in Nigeria. Risk factors for PPRV seropositivity were reported in 10/37 (27.0%) articles, with a higher seroprevalence observed in female animals, although differing results were observed when considering species and age separately. There were inconsistencies in study design and data reporting between studies which precluded conduct of a meta-analysis. Nevertheless, several research gaps were identified including the need to investigate the low uptake of PPRV vaccine, and the economic benefits of PPR control measures to small ruminant farmers. Such data will inform PPR control strategies in Nigeria and subsequently contribute to the global 2030 PPR eradication strategy.

Training needs assessment of veterinary practitioners in Ethiopia.

Pastoral and agro-pastoral farming are extensively practised in Ethiopia, and the main livestock kept are cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and camels. The livestock sector is faced with complex challenges including limited availability of well-trained and skilled animal health professionals. The objective of this study was to identify and prioritise areas for training with the goal of providing evidence to guide strategies to improve the skills, delivery, and governance of veterinary services across Ethiopia. A cross-sectional survey was developed and administered electronically to veterinary professionals in Ethiopia using the Qualtrics platform. Data were collected on select parameters including demographics, diseases of economic significance, diagnosis, disease prevention, biosecurity, disease control, treatment, epidemiology, One Health, disease reporting, and the participants' opinions about training. The survey data was downloaded in Microsoft Excel and descriptive statistics performed. A total of 234 veterinary professionals completed the survey. Most participants were male (89.7%) and aged between 26 and 35 years (81.2%). Of the total respondents, 56.4% worked in government and 8.5% in private practice. Most participants perceived training on laboratory diagnostic testing, disease prevention, antimicrobial resistance, antibiotic sensitivity testing, basic epidemiology, and clinical procedures, as most beneficial. In addition, most respondents would like to receive training on diseases affecting cattle, poultry, and small ruminants. The findings from this study provide baseline information on priority training areas for veterinary professionals and could potentially contribute to national efforts to develop and implement a continuing professional development programme in the veterinary domain, in view of improving veterinary service delivery.

Continuing Education of Animal Health Professionals in Uganda: A Training Needs Assessment.

In Uganda, delivery of veterinary services is vital to animal health and productivity, and is heavily dependent on well-trained and skilled animal health professionals. The purpose of this study was to identify and prioritize areas for refresher training and continuous professional development of animal health professionals (veterinarians and veterinary paraprofessionals), with the overarching aim of improving veterinary service delivery in Uganda. A survey was administered electronically to 311 animal health professionals during the period November 14-30, 2019. Data were collected on relevant parameters including demographics, knowledge on preventive medicine, diagnostics, disease control and treatment, epidemiology, and One Health, as well as participants' opinions on training priorities, challenges faced, and constraints to veterinary service delivery. Most respondents were veterinarians 26-35 years old, were male, and worked in clinical practice. Lowest perceived knowledge was reported on subjects relating to laboratory diagnostics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and nutrition. Training topics considered to be of most benefit to respondents included laboratory diagnostics, treatment of common livestock diseases, AMR, and practical clinical skills in reproductive and preventive medicine. Participants preferred to receive training in the form of practical workshops, in-practice training, and external training. This study highlights the need to prioritize training in practical clinical skills, laboratory diagnostics, and AMR. Wet labs and hands-on practical clinical and laboratory skills should be incorporated to enhance training. Provision of targeted and successful trainings will be dependent on the allocation of adequate resources and support by relevant public and private stakeholders across the veterinary sector.

Baseline Assessment of Poultry Production, Pharmaceutical Product Use, and Related Challenges on Commercial Poultry Flocks in Kano and Oyo States of Nigeria.

Poultry production is a major component of the livestock sector in Nigeria and continues to expand rapidly; however, it is still constrained by low productivity. A farm survey was conducted to provide a baseline assessment of poultry production (products generated, farm costs, and revenue), pharmaceutical use, and related challenges faced by farmers on 44 commercial poultry farms in Oyo and Kano states of Nigeria. Live spent layers, eggs, and used beddings were the most frequently sold products for revenue. Antibiotic products were widely used, the most reported were Doxygen, Tylosin, and Conflox. Overall, 40% of farms used feed additives (including toxin binders, minerals, and vitamins) and 12% used coccidiostats. Access to pharmaceutical products was a key challenge and appeared to disproportionally affect farmers in the northern part (Kano) of Nigeria. Other challenges included perceived antibiotic ineffectiveness, high cost of drugs, and long distances to pharmaceutical suppliers. Challenges related to vaccine use were unavailability, distance to the supplier, and health issues interfering with the vaccination schedule. Study findings highlight the need for improved access to veterinary pharmaceuticals, particularly in the northern states. Further investigations into the causes of antibiotic ineffectiveness and strategies for distribution of high-quality, effective pharmaceuticals are also necessary.

A Survey of Priority Livestock Diseases and Laboratory Diagnostic Needs of Animal Health Professionals and Farmers in Uganda.

Background: Despite the investments made in veterinary diagnostic laboratory service delivery in Uganda, the scope and level of utilization remains low. This study aimed to determine the priority livestock diseases for which farmers and animal health professionals require veterinary diagnostic laboratory services, document the perceptions and opinions of key stakeholders on veterinary diagnostic laboratory services, and determine the factors that influence the delivery and utilization of animal disease diagnostic services in Uganda. Methods: A qualitative study approach involving a survey and key informant interviews was used to collect relevant data from four stakeholder groups: animal health workers, laboratory technologists and technicians, farmers, and key informants. The survey data were exported to excel, and descriptive statistics performed. The key informant interview recordings were transcribed, and thematic analysis performed. Results: The most reported diseases and conditions for which diagnostic services were needed were hemoparasites (including East Coast fever, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and trypanosomosis), viral (including Foot and mouth disease, lumpy skin disease, rift valley fever, and papillomatosis), bacteria (including brucellosis, colibacillosis, anthrax, leptospirosis, and paratuberculosis) and protozoa diseases (coccidiosis), endoparasites (helminths), and mastitis. The most common diagnostic laboratory tests requested by clients, but laboratories were unable to provide included: rapid tests for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, Foot and mouth disease, Newcastle disease, acaricide analysis, culture and antimicrobial sensitivity test, serology, and complete blood count. The most frequently reported challenges to providing diagnostic laboratory services were poor or lack of relevant equipment, insufficient or lack of supplies and reagents, high cost of reagents, inadequate or lack of laboratory staff to perform tests, and inadequate training of laboratory staff. Conclusions: This study highlighted the need to improve provision of laboratory diagnostic services to meet the prioritized diagnostic needs of farmers and animal health professionals. Increased intersectoral engagement and funding support from the private, industry, and government sectors is necessary to help address the observed challenges to provision of diagnostic laboratory services, including equipping of the laboratories, provision of supplies, and hiring and training of laboratory staff. Finally, the findings also suggest that the education of farmers and animal health workers on the value and benefits of laboratory diagnostic services may contribute to increase in sample submission and subsequent demand for diagnostic laboratory services.

Evaluating Disease Threats to Sustainable Poultry Production in Africa: Newcastle Disease, Infectious Bursal Disease, and Avian Infectious Bronchitis in Commercial Poultry Flocks in Kano and Oyo States, Nigeria.

The growth of the poultry industry in Nigeria is constrained by major poultry diseases, despite the implementation of vaccination programs. This study aimed to assess the level of protection against Newcastle disease (ND), infectious bursal disease (IBD), and avian infectious bronchitis (IB) afforded by current vaccination schedules and characterize the circulating virus strains in commercial poultry flocks in Nigeria. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 44 commercial poultry farms in Oyo and Kano states of Nigeria. Serum and tissue samples and data on flock, clinical and vaccination records were collected on each farm. Farms were classified as being protected or not protected against ND, IBD and IB based on a defined criterion. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) testing was performed for each target virus on tissue samples and positive samples were sequenced. A total of 15/44 (34.1%), 35/44 (79.5%), and 1/44 (2.3%) farms were considered to be protected against ND, IBD, and IB, respectively, at the time of sampling. NDV RNA was detected on 7/44 (15.9%) farms and sequences obtained from 3/7 farms were characterized as the lentogenic strain. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) RNA was detected on 16/44 (36.4%) farms tested; very virulent (vv) IBDV and non-virulent (nv) IBDV strains were both detected in 3/16 (18.8%) positive samples. Sequences of IBDV isolates were either clustered with a group of genotype 3 virulent IBDV strains or were related to vaccine strains MB and D78 strains. IBV RNA was detected on 36/44 (81.8%) farms, with variant02, Massachusetts, 4/91, and Q1 variants detected. Sequences of IBV isolates were either clustered with the vaccines strains Massachusetts M41 and H120 or were most closely related to the D274-like strains or a clade of sequences reported in Nigeria and Niger in 2006 and 2007. This study revealed that most study farms in Oyo and Kano states did not have adequate protective antibody titers against IBV and NDV and were therefore at risk of field challenge. Infectious bursal disease virus and IBV RNA were detected on farms with a history of vaccination suggesting potential vaccination failure, or that the vaccine strains used mismatch with the circulating strains and are therefore not protective.

Antibiotic use practices of veterinarians and para-veterinarians and the implications for antibiotic stewardship in Nigeria.

The aim of this study was to describe the antibiotic use practices of veterinarians and para-veterinarians in Nigeria. An online survey was distributed during November through December 2018 via email and phone to veterinarians and para-veterinarians to collect information on antibiotic use practices. Data were downloaded into Excel and descriptive statistics were presented and analysed. The survey was completed by 390 respondents. Almost all respondents (98.5%, 384/390) recommended the use of antibiotics to treat animal patients, and of these, 93.2% (358/384) were veterinarians and 6.8% (26/384) were para-veterinarians. Most respondents reported commonly recommending the use of oxytetracycline (82.6%, 317/384), tylosin (44.5%, 171/384) and gentamycin (43.8%, 168/384). A third (32.0%, 122/384) of respondents did not undertake antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) prior to antibiotic treatment. At least 60% of the respondents recommended the use of antibiotics for the treatment of non-bacterial pathogens, including viral, helminth and fungal pathogens. Over 55% (217/390) were not aware of government-issued guidelines on antibiotic use in animals, although of those aware, 69% (74/107) utilised the guidelines. Across all respondents, the majority believed legislation or regulation by government can influence the use of antibiotics by animal health professionals. The study highlights areas that can be targeted as part of intervention strategies to promote antimicrobial stewardship by animal health professionals in Nigeria, including the need for increased use of AST as a tool for supporting disease management, increased awareness of appropriate antibiotic use and greater dissemination of antibiotic use guidelines and enforcement of relevant regulation by government authorities.

A Review of the Current Status of Peste des Petits Ruminants Epidemiology in Small Ruminants in Tanzania.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious viral disease of sheep and goats with high mortality. The disease is of considerable economic importance in countries such as Tanzania, where small ruminant products are important for sustainable livelihoods. This review assesses current knowledge regarding the epidemiology of PPRV in Tanzania, highlighting the challenges with respect to control and suggesting possible interventions. Thirty-three articles were identified after literature searches using Google Scholar and PubMed. Studies revealed that PPRV is endemic in sheep and goats in Tanzania, although seropositivity has also been reported in cattle, camels, buffalo, Grant's gazelle, wildebeest and impala, but with no clinical manifestation. Three lineages (lineage II to IV) of PPRV have been identified in Tanzania, implying at least two separate introductions of the virus. Diagnosis of PPR in Tanzania is mostly by observation of clinical signs and lesions at post mortem. Risk factors in Tanzania include age, sex, species, and close contact of animals from different farms/localities. Although there is an efficacious vaccine available for PPR, poor disease surveillance, low vaccine coverage, and uncontrolled animal movements have been the bane of control efforts for PPR in Tanzania. There is need for collaborative efforts to develop interventions to control and eradicate the disease. The establishment of a national reference laboratory for PPR, conduct of surveillance, the development of high-quality DIVA vaccines, as well as execution of a carefully planned national vaccination campaign may be key to the control and subsequent eradication of PPR in Tanzania and achieving the global goal of eradicating PPR by 2030.

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Veterinarians Towards Antimicrobial Resistance and Stewardship in Nigeria.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health concern and the inappropriate use of antibiotics in animals and humans is considered a contributing factor. A cross-sectional survey to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices of veterinarians regarding AMR and antimicrobial stewardship was conducted in Nigeria. A total of 241 respondents completed an online survey. Only 21% of respondents correctly defined the term antimicrobial stewardship and 59.8% were unaware of the guidelines provided by the Nigeria AMR National Action Plan. Over half (51%) of the respondents indicated that prophylactic antibiotic use was appropriate when farm biosecurity was poor. Only 20% of the respondents conducted antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) frequently, and the unavailability of veterinary laboratory services (82%) and the owner's inability to pay (72%) were reported as key barriers to conducting AST. The study findings suggest strategies focusing on the following areas may be useful in improving appropriate antibiotic use and antimicrobial stewardship among veterinarians in Nigeria: increased awareness of responsible antimicrobial use among practicing and newly graduated veterinarians, increased dissemination of regularly updated antibiotic use guidelines, increased understanding of the role of good biosecurity and vaccination practices in disease prevention, and increased provision of laboratory services and AST at affordable costs.

Small Ruminant Production in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia: A Systematic Review of Constraints and Potential Solutions.

Sheep and goats are an important commodity for smallholder farmers across East Africa, but severe limitations remain in small ruminant production. This review aimed to identify specific constraints to small ruminant production and identify practical and sustainable solutions. From 54 eligible articles, most were focused in Ethiopia (n = 44) with only 6 studies performed in Tanzania and 4 in Uganda. The most frequently identified constraint in Ethiopia and Tanzania was disease (n = 28 and n = 3, respectively), and in Uganda, it was the lack of access to veterinary services (n = 4). Additionally, access to good breeding stock, lack of animal records, and an established marketing chain were also mentioned in all the three countries. Ectoparasites, gastrointestinal parasites, orf, and sheep/goat pox were the most frequently mentioned disease challenges causing productivity losses. Many articles provided potential solutions as suggested by farmers, including improved access to veterinary services and medicines, improved record keeping, and access to good breeding stock. Farmers highlighted the value of community-based participatory development plans to increase education on disease control, land management, and husbandry. This review also highlighted knowledge gaps, the need for further research, particularly in Tanzania and Uganda, and the importance of addressing multiple challenges holistically due to the links between constraints.