Association of Autophagy in the Cell Death Mediated by Dihydrotestosterone in Autoreactive T Cells Independent of Antigenic Stimulation.

Gender disparity is well documented in the mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) induced with proteolipid protein (PLP) 139-151, in which female, but not male, SJL mice show a chronic relapsing-remitting paralysis. Furthermore, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) has been shown to ameliorate the severity of EAE, but the underlying mechanisms of its protective effects are unclear. Using major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II dextramers for PLP 139-151, we tested the hypothesis that DHT selectively modulates the expansion and functionalities of antigen-specific T cells. Unexpectedly, we noted that DHT induced cell death in antigen-specific, autoreactive T cells, but the effects were not selective, because both proliferating and non-proliferating cells were equally affected independent of antigenic stimulation. Furthermore, DHT-exposed PLP 139-151-specific T cells did not show any shift in cytokine production; rather, frequencies of cytokine-producing PLP-specific T cells were significantly reduced, irrespective of T helper (Th) 1, Th2, and Th17 subsets of cytokines. By evaluating cell death and autophagy pathways, we provide evidence for the induction of autophagy to be associated with cell death caused by DHT. Taken together, the data provide new insights into the role of DHT and indicate that cell death and autophagy contribute to the therapeutic effects of androgens in autoreactive T cells.

Impairment of Atg5-dependent autophagic flux promotes paraquat- and MPP⁺-induced apoptosis but not rotenone or 6-hydroxydopamine toxicity.

Controversial reports on the role of autophagy as a survival or cell death mechanism in dopaminergic cell death induced by parkinsonian toxins exist. We investigated the alterations in autophagic flux and the role of autophagy protein 5 (Atg5)-dependent autophagy in dopaminergic cell death induced by parkinsonian toxins. Dopaminergic cell death induced by the mitochondrial complex I inhibitors 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺) and rotenone, the pesticide paraquat, and the dopamine analog 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was paralleled by increased autophagosome accumulation. However, when compared with basal autophagy levels using chloroquine, autophagosome accumulation was a result of impaired autophagic flux. Only 6-OHDA induced an increase in autophagosome formation. Overexpression of a dominant negative form of Atg5 increased paraquat- and MPP⁺-induced cell death. Stimulation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent signaling protected against cell death induced by paraquat, whereas MPP⁺-induced toxicity was enhanced by wortmannin, a phosphoinositide 3-kinase class III inhibitor, rapamycin, and trehalose, an mTOR-independent autophagy activator. Modulation of autophagy by either pharmacological or genetic approaches had no effect on rotenone or 6-OHDA toxicity. Cell death induced by parkinsonian neurotoxins was inhibited by the pan caspase inhibitor (Z-VAD), but only caspase-3 inhibition was able to decrease MPP⁺-induced cell death. Finally, inhibition of the lysosomal hydrolases, cathepsins, increased the toxicity by paraquat and MPP⁺, supporting a protective role of Atg5-dependent autophagy and lysosomes degradation pathways on dopaminegic cell death. These results demonstrate that in dopaminergic cells, Atg5-dependent autophagy acts as a protective mechanism during apoptotic cell death induced by paraquat and MPP⁺ but not during rotenone or 6-OHDA toxicity.