Association of Cry1Ac toxin resistance in Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) with increased alkaline phosphatase levels in the midgut lumen.

Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin was characterized in a population of Helicoverpa zea larvae previously shown not to have an alteration in toxin binding as the primary resistance mechanism to this toxin. Cry1Ac-selected larvae (AR1) were resistant to protoxins and toxins of Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and the corresponding modified proteins lacking helix α-1 (Cry1AbMod and Cry1AcMod). When comparing brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) prepared from susceptible (LC) and AR1 larval midguts, there were only negligible differences in overall Cry1Ac toxin binding, though AR1 had 18% reversible binding, in contrast to LC, in which all binding was irreversible. However, no differences were detected in Cry1Ac-induced pore formation activity in BBMVs from both strains. Enzymatic activities of two putative Cry1Ac receptors (aminopeptidase N [APN] and alkaline phosphatase [ALP]) were significantly reduced (2-fold and 3-fold, respectively) in BBMVs from AR1 compared to LC larvae. These reductions corresponded to reduced protein levels in midgut luminal contents only in the case of ALP, with an almost 10-fold increase in specific ALP activity in midgut fluids from AR1 compared to LC larvae. Partially purified H. zea ALP bound Cry1Ac toxin in ligand blots and competed with Cry1Ac toxin for BBMV binding. Based on these results, we suggest the existence of at least one mechanism of resistance to Cry1A toxins in H. zea involving binding of Cry1Ac toxin to an ALP receptor in the larval midgut lumen of resistant larvae.

Synergistic interactions between Cry1Ac and natural cotton defenses limit survival of Cry1Ac-resistant Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on Bt cotton.

Larvae of the bollworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) show some tolerance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ac, and can survive on Cry1Ac-expressing Bt cotton, which should increase resistance development concerns. However, field-evolved resistance has not yet been observed. In a previous study, a population of H. zea was selected for stable resistance to Cry1Ac toxin. In the present study, we determined in laboratory bioassays if larvae of the Cry1Ac toxin-resistant H. zea population show higher survival rates on field-cultivated Bt cotton squares (= flower buds) collected prebloom-bloom than susceptible H. zea. Our results show that Cry1Ac toxin-resistant H. zea cannot complete larval development on Cry1Ac-expressing Bt cotton, despite being more than 150-fold resistant to Cry1Ac toxin and able to survive until pupation on Cry1Ac toxin concentrations greater than present in Bt cotton squares. Since mortality observed for Cry1Ac-resistant H. zea on Bt cotton was higher than expected, we investigated whether Cry1Ac interacts with gossypol and or other compounds offered with cotton powder in artificial diet. Diet incorporation bioassays were conducted with Cry1Ac toxin alone, and with gossypol and 4% cotton powder in the presence and absence of Cry1Ac. Cry1Ac toxin was significantly more lethal to susceptible H. zea than to resistant H. zea, but no difference in susceptibility to gossypol was observed between strains. However, combinations of Cry1Ac with gossypol or cotton powder were synergistic against resistant, but not against susceptible H. zea. Gossypol concentrations in individual larvae showed no significant differences between insect strains, or between larvae fed gossypol alone vs. those fed gossypol plus Cry1Ac. These results may help explain the inability of Cry1Ac-resistant H. zea to complete development on Bt cotton, and the absence of field-evolved resistance to Bt cotton by this pest.

Fitness costs associated with Cry1Ac-resistant Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): a factor countering selection for resistance to Bt cotton?

The heritability, stability, and fitness costs in a Cry1Ac-resistant Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) colony (AR) were measured in the laboratory. In response to selection, heritability values for AR increased in generations 4-7 and decreased in generations 11-19. AR had significantly increased pupal mortality, a male-biased sex ratio, and lower mating success compared with the unselected parental strain (SC). AR males had significantly more mating costs compared with females. AR reared on untreated diet had significantly increased fitness costs compared with rearing on Cry1Ac treated diet. AR had significantly higher larval mortality, lower larval weight, longer larval developmental period, lower pupal weight, longer pupal duration, and higher number of morphologically abnormal adults compared with SC. Due to fitness costs after 27 generations of selection as described above, AR was crossed with a new susceptible colony (SC1), resulting in AR1. After just two generations of selection, AR1 exhibited significant fitness costs in larval mortality, pupal weight and morphologically abnormal adults compared with SC1. Cry1Ac-resistance was not stable in AR in the absence of selection. This study demonstrates that fitness costs are strongly linked with selecting for Cry1Ac resistance in H. zea in the laboratory, and fitness costs remain, and in some cases, even increase after selection pressure is removed. These results support the lack of success of selecting, and maintaining Cry1Ac-resistant populations of H. zea in the laboratory, and may help explain why field-evolved resistance has yet to be observed in this major pest of Bacillus thuringiensis cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.

Production and characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac-resistant cotton bollworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie).

Laboratory-selected Bacillus thuringiensis-resistant colonies are important tools for elucidating B. thuringiensis resistance mechanisms. However, cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa zea, a target pest of transgenic corn and cotton expressing B. thuringiensis Cry1Ac (Bt corn and cotton), has proven difficult to select for stable resistance. Two populations of H. zea (AR and MR), resistant to the B. thuringiensis protein found in all commercial Bt cotton varieties (Cry1Ac), were established by selection with Cry1Ac activated toxin (AR) or MVP II (MR). Cry1Ac toxin reflects the form ingested by H. zea when feeding on Bt cotton, whereas MVP II is a Cry1Ac formulation used for resistance selection and monitoring. The resistance ratio (RR) for AR exceeded 100-fold after 11 generations and has been maintained at this level for nine generations. This is the first report of stable Cry1Ac resistance in H. zea. MR crashed after 11 generations, reaching only an RR of 12. AR was only partially cross-resistant to MVP II, suggesting that MVP II does not have the same Cry1Ac selection pressure as Cry1Ac toxin against H. zea and that proteases may be involved with resistance. AR was highly cross-resistant to Cry1Ab toxin but only slightly cross-resistant to Cry1Ab expressing corn leaf powder. AR was not cross-resistant to Cry2Aa2, Cry2Ab2-expressing corn leaf powder, Vip3A, and cypermethrin. Toxin-binding assays showed no significant differences, indicating that resistance was not linked to a reduction in binding. These results aid in understanding why this pest has not evolved B. thuringiensis resistance, and highlight the need to choose carefully the form of B. thuringiensis protein used in experiments.